S 501 
.F7 
Copy 1 



immw 



E 


m 


W 




wM'in^ 


1 'iv^^^ 


r\",, 












l#2 


m 






m 






iff Sit 


>m 








Btt 

an 




' if' 





FOR BETTER CROPS 



CYRIL G. HOPKINS 

Professor of Agronomy and (Ihemistry 
College of Agriculture, Uuiversity of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 



HON. WILLET M. HAYS 

Assistant Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, U. (J. 

P. G. HOLDEN 

Vice Dean and Professor of Agronomy, Iowa Agricultural College 
Ames, Iowa 

JOSEPH E. WING 

Expert Agriculturist, Mechanicsliurg, Ohio 

WALDO F. BROWN 

Farm Specialist, Oxford, Ohio 

L. AV. CHASE 

Professor of Agricultural Engineering, University of Nebraska 
Lincoln, Nebraska 

THOMAS SHA>\' 

Formerly of the Minnesota Experinu-nl Station 
St. Anthony Park, Minnesota 

M. R. D. OWINGS 

Advertising Manager 
International Harvester Company of America, ('hicago 

J. E. BUCK 

Of the I II C Service Bureau 



Copyright 1911 

BY 

I H C Service Bureau 

Interuatioual, Harvester Company of America 

(Incorporated) 

Chicago U S A 



/; 



©CI.A2S9«B1 



;«^ 




HE subjects treated in this book cover 
a wide range of tbougbt, and we present 
them in this form for the convenience 
of those who are endeavoring to make their 
acres yield larger and more profitable returns. 
Today the farmer is working toward a well- 
defined purpose — his constant aim is to do 
less work that requires muscle and brawn, but 
more brain work. He purposes to purchase 
machines that will do the drudgery and irk- 
some tasks while he himself solves the prob- 
lems of farm management — and the purpose 
of this book is to help the farmer achieve 
that end. 

Issued by the I H C Service Bureau 

International Harvester Company of America 

"CKicago (Incorporated) USA 



Increasing Fertility 



ELEMENTS OF SOIL AND THEIK VALUE TO CROPS 
FERTILIZERS AND SOIL BUILDING 



By Cybil G. Hopkins 

Professor of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, University of Illinois 




IF he who made two blades of grass 
grow where only one grew before is a 
public benefactor, then he who reduces 
the fertility of tlie soil so that only one 
ear of corn grows where two have been 
grown before is a public curse. 

Agriculture is the fundamental sup- 
port of the American nation, and soil 
fertility is the absolute support of agri- 
culture. 

Without agriculture, America is 
nothing. The forest and the earth 
supply the timber, the stone, and the metal to build and 
equip railroad and factory, and the fuel to operate mill and 
locomotive, but directly or indirectly these great industries 
are absolutely dependent on agriculture for their continued 
existence. 

The Two Functions of the Soil — The soil has two distinct 
functions to perform in crop production: First, the soil must 
furnish a home for the plant, where the roots can penetrate the 
earth upon which the plant must stand; second, the soil must 
furnish plant food, or nourishment, for the growth, develop- 
ment, and maturing of the plant. 

To improve the pliysical condition of the soil is to improve 
the home of the plant; while to add to the soil, or to liberate 
from the soil fertilizing materials, is to increase the available 
supply of plant food. 

One soil may furnish an excellent home for the plant, but a 
very insufficient supply of plant food; while another soil may 
contain abundance of plant food, but the physical conditions 
(such as imperfect drainage, or inadequate aeration) may be 
such as to make an unfit lodging place for the plant. 

The Six Essential Factors in Crop Production — There are 
six essential and positive factors in crop production: (1) the seed, 
(2) the home or lodging place, (3) moisture, (4) heat, (5) light, and 

5 



6 FOR BETTER CROPS 

(6) plant food. Some negative factors are injury from insects 
and plant diseases. 

Good seed is exceedingly important, and the quality of the 
seed selected and planted is largely under the control of the 
farmer. 

By proper drainage, by the use of organic matter, and by 
proper tillage, thus maintaining good physical conditions, the 
farmer may provide a suitable home for the plant, remove sur- 
plus water, render the soil more capable of absorbing and retain- 
ing necessary moisture, and control the temperature to some 
extent by lessening evaporation and by changing the color of 
the soil, as by the addition of organic matter. 

More than five times as much heat is required to evaporate 
water from the surface of the soil as would be needed to raise 
the temperature of the same amount of water from the freezing 
to the boiling point. It is because of this that wet, poorly 
drained soils are cold. Dark soils absorb more heat and conse- 
quently are warmer than light colored soils. 

Light is a factor over which man has no direct or positive 
control, but he has full control over some negative factors, 
such as weeds, which if allowed to grow might largely prevent 
the light from reaching the young plants. Indeed, the first and 
greatest damage caused by weeds is due to the fact that they 
shut off the light from the growing plants. If the supply of 
moisture or of plant food is insufficient for both the crop and 
the weeds, then the weeds may rob the growing crop of these 
essentials to some extent. 

So-called nurse crops, such as oats or wheat when growing 
with clover, may grow so thick and rank as to injure to a marked 
extent the clover, by shutting out the light, also by robbing the 
clover plants of moisture and plant food. To avoid these injuries 
or difficulties, the clover should be started with a light seeding 
of wheat or oats (about one bushel to the acre) preferably planted 
in drills running north and south, which will permit the strong 
midday light to reach the clover plants. 

If oats are seeded as the nurse crop, they should be an early 
maturing variety, or, they may be pastured off or cut early for oat 
hay. The surest method of obtaining a good setting of clover is 
to sow it without a nurse crop and pasture the field or clip the 
weeds with a mower if necessary. 

The least understood and the most neglected essential factor 
in crop production is plant food. Food of required kinds and in 
sufficient quantity is as necessary for plants as for animals; and 
it is even more important to provide an ample and balanced 
ration for corn than for cattle, because cattle are usually able to 
move about and find some food for themselves, while the corn 
plants are stationary and limited to tlie food within reach of 
their roots. 



FOR BETTER CROPS 



The Ten Essential Plant Food Elements — There are ten 
different elements of plant food, each of which is absolutely 
essential to agricultural plants. These elements are carbon, 
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, 
magnesium, iron, and sulphur. 

Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, which constitute more than 
90 per cent of most agricultural plants, are contained in air and 
water, the supply being unlimited. The two elements, iron and 
sulphur, although absolutely essential to plant growth, are 
required in very small amounts, while they are provided by 
nature in practically inexhaustible quantities. 

On the other hand, the five elements, nitrogen, phosphorus, 
potassium, calcium, and magnesium, are required by plants in 
very considerable amounts, and soils are frequently found which 
are so deficient in one or more of these five elements as to limit 




The old vray -was a disagreeable job 



the yields of crops. It should be understood that soils are never 
found which are entirely devoid of these elements. Even the 
poorest and most unproductive soils still contain at least some 
small supply of each of these elements, and as a general rule 
such so-called exhausted soils contain at least one and frequently 
two or three of these valuable elements in large amount, the 
low productive capacity being ^due to the deficiency of one or 
two elements only. 

Sometimes the element which the plant fails to obtain in 
sufficient quantity for its normal growth, the element which 
positively limits the yield of the crop, is actually present in the 
soil in very large amount. In such cases the practice should 
not be to add to the soil more of this plant food element, but 
to adopt methods of soil treatment and management by which 



8 



FOR BETTER CROPS 



we can liberate a sufficient amount of this element for maximum 
profitable crop yields. This point will be further discussed in 
the following pages. 

Nitrogen — The element nitrogen ought never to be bought 
in general live-stock or grain farming. The atmospheric pres- 
sure is fifteen pounds to the square inch. Of this, about twelve 
pounds pressure is due to the nitrogen contained in the air. If 
we compute the value of this nitrogen at fifteen cents a pound, 
the price commonly paid for the nitrogen in commercial ferti- 
lizers, we find about $11,000,000 worth of nitrogen resting on 
every acre of the earth's surface. 

It is true that such crops as corn, oats, wheat, timothy, cot- 
ton and tobacco have no power to make any direct use of this 




A ^vasteful method of handling the manure 



atmospheric nitrogen, but there is a class of plants known as 
legumes, including such valuable agricultural plants as red 
clover, alsike, alfalfa, crimson clover, cow peas, soy beans, vetch, 
etc., upon the roots of which there are or should be small nodules 
or tubercles, varying from the size of pin heads upon clover roots 
to that of peas upon soy beans, in which live great numbers of 
very minute microscopic organisms, called bacteria, which have 
power to take nitrogen from the air as it enters the pores of the 
soil, to cause this free gaseous nitrogen to combine with other 
elements in suitable form for plant food which is then taken up 
by the clover or other legumes for its own growth. 

If the roots and stubble are left to decay in the ground, the 
nitrogen which they contain becomes available to succeeding 
crops of corn or other grains or grasses, but on land of moderate 
productive power the soil will furnish as much nitrogen to the 



FOR BETTER CROP Pi 



clover crop as will be contained in the roots and stubble after 
the hay and seed crops are harvested. If the entire legume crop 
is plowed under as green manure, then all of the nitrogen taken 
from the air is left in the soil for succeeding crops. 

If the crops are fed to animals provided with plenty of 
absorbent litter or bedding, as straw or refuse shredded corn 
fodder, so that all liquid excrement is saved, then about 75 per 
cent of the nitrogen contained in the feed may be returned to 
the land in the farm manure. 

In very intensive farming, as in market gardening near large 
cities, if the land is too valuable to be given up even for a part 
of a year to the growing of legumes for fertilizing purposes, tlien 
it becomes necessary to apply nitrogen ; and this is also profit- 
able, for the products of one acre frequently bring $100 or more 




Exposinig the manure to the elements 



for one season. In emergencies, commercial nitrogen, especially 
cotton-seed meal, may well be used for cotton, because of its 
high value per acre; but, as a rule, farm manure, or legumes as 
green manures, could be substituted with greater profit in the 
long run. 

Where it can be obtained, stable manure is usually the most 
economical and satisfactory form in which to apply nitrogen in 
market gardening, although cotton seed or cotton-seed meal, 
dried blood, tankage, sodium nitrate, and ammonia sulphate are 
also used with profit at times. 

Phosphorus — If the element phosphorus becomes deficient 
in the soil, the total supply can be increased only by making an 
actual application of some kind of material containing phos- 
phorus. 

It is well to bear in mind that about three-fourths of the 



10 



FOR BETTEB CROPS 



phosphorus required for ordinary grain crops is stored in the 
seed or grain, while only one-fourth remains in the straw or 
stalks. Consequently, when corn or wheat is sold from the farm, 
three-fourths of the phosphorus required to produce the crop 
leaves the farm in the grain. 

When the crops are fed to growing animals or milch cows, about 
one-fourth of the phosphorus contained in the feed is retained 
in the bones, flesh, and milk, while about three-fourths is 
returned in the manure. 

The total phosphorus content of the soil on any given farm 
may be increased by the purchase of stable manure, or by using 
manure made from purchased feeds, especially from grains or 
other concentrates, as bran, oil meal, or gluten feed; or we may 
purchase steamed bone meal from the stockyards companies who 
buy our cattle, slag phosphate from the steel works — if the slag 
contains sufficient phosphorus to make it valuable — or natural 











'^^ffl^Hi^fr 








[B ^^^W^- 






Mi 


WiBI|BL^^^^ ^^^^ i- 1- 1 " n 






m 



When manure is left in piles, a lar^e per cent of the plant food is 
lost through evaporation and surface drainage 



rock phosphate direct from the extensive natural phosphate 
deposits in Tennessee, South Carolina, or Florida, where this 
mineral is being mined and ground in large amounts. It may 
be noted that the original stock of phosphorus naturally in the 
soil is powdered rock phosphate. 

Potassium — Potassium, like phosphorus, is a mineral ele- 
ment contained in the soil, and if the supply in the soil is de- 
ficient it can be increased only by a direct application to the soil 
of some material. As a matter of fact, aside from peaty swamp 
lands and some very sandy lands, the potassium contained in 
most soils is practically inexhaustible. The average corn belt 
soil of central and northern Illinois contains as much total 
potassium per acre in the first seven inches as would be re- 
quired for 100 bushels of corn (grain only) each year for nineteen 
centuries. 



FOR BETTER CROPS 11 

Of course the stalks, which are rich in potassium, should be 
returned to the soil, either directly or in manure. Even if they 
are burned (which should be the exception and not the rule) the 
potassium remains in the ash. 

Peaty swamp soils are frequently exceedingly deficient in both 
available and total potassium as compared with normal soils, 
and, where the supply of farm manure is limited, commercial 
potassium salts may be applied to such land with very great 
profit. Potassium sulphate and potassium chloride (frequently, 
though incorrectly, called muriate of potash) are the most 
economical and satisfactory commercial potassium fertilizers. 

Kainit is sometimes used, but it contains only 10 per cent of 
potassium while potassium sulphate usually contains 40 percent, 
and potassium chloride contains about 42 per cent of the element 
potassium. 

About 200 pounds of potassium sulphate or potassium chloride 
will supply sufficient potassium for a hundred-bushel crop of 
corn, and on very peaty land, where corn will not grow, such an 
application is recommended. The subsequent applications may 
be reduced in accordance with the amounts of potassium 
returned in the stalks and in the farm manure made from feed- 
ing the crop. But in dealing with soils of low productive capac- 
ity, of whatsoever class, it must be remembered that we must 
first grow large crops before we can make large amounts of 
manure, and if necessary we must always be ready to supple- 
ment our farm manure with any needed plant food if it can be 
obtained and used with profit. 

Because soils deficient in potassium are usually abnormal and 
exist only in restricted areas, this class of soils will not be further 
considered except to mention in this connection that where such 
soils are found, as in some swamp regions, then the addition of 
potassium frequently produces most astonishing increases in 
crop yields. This is well illustrated by the results obtained on 
the University of Illinois soil experiment field near Momence, 
Illinois, in the Kankakee swamp area. 

Crop Yields in Soil Experiments 
Peaty Swamp Land near Momence, Illinois 



Plant Pood Applied 



None 

Nitrogen . . 
Phosphorus 
Potassium. - 



Nitrogen, phosphorus 

Nitrogen, potassium 

Phosphorus, potassium 

Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium 



1903 Corn 


Yield per Acre 


7 bu. 


4 bu. 


5 bu. 


73 bu. 


4 bu. 


71 bu. 


73 bu. 


67 bu. 



12 FOR BETTER CROPS 

It will be seen that potassium increased tlie yield of corn l)y 
more tlian sixty bushels to the acre. It should be understood 
tliat some soils which are peaty in the surface with a heavier 
clayey subsoil within reach of the plow can be improved merely 
by deep plowing, for the clayey material is usually rich in 
potassium. It sometimes occurs that a subsoil exists which 
contains considerable amounts of total potassium, but this may 
become available slowly unless more actively decaying- organic 
matter than peat is present. In such cases even light applica- 
tions of fresh farm manure may produce an effect far exceeding 
that which is commonly expected. 

Occasionally peaty swamp soils, like other soils, may contain 
some injurious alkali, as magnesium carbonate, in the sub-sur- 
face soil in such amounts as to prevent corn roots from living 
in it, and hence liberal amounts of available potassium provided 
in the surface soil may greatly benefit the crop. Deep peat and 
peat underlaid by clean sand are, as a rule, deficient in both 
available and total potassium. 

It is well to remember that the seed or grain contains only 
about one-forth of the potassium required for a crop, wliile three- 
fourths remain in the straw or stalks; also that animals retain 
practically none of the potassium consumed in the food, almost 
all of this element being returned in the solid and liquid manure. 

Galcium — As an average, the normal soils of central United 
States contain only one-third as mucli calcium as potassium; 
while tlie average annual loss of calcium in drainage waters and 
in crops removed amounts to five or six times as much as the 
loss of potassium; so that in the maintenance of plant food the 
addition of calcium in limestone is of very much greater impor- 
tance than is the application of potassium to tlie almost inex- 
haustible supply now present in such soils. 

Magnesium ~ The amount of magnesium required by crops 
is appreciable, but not nearly so large as of the other four ele- 
ments mentioned. Magnesium can be applied most cheaply and 
in readily available form by using dolomitic limestone, such as 
is found in great abundance at Kankakee, Joliet, Rockford, and 
many other places in northern Illinois. Dolomite contains 
about as much magnesium as calcium, and has slightly greater 
power to correct soil acidity than the ordinary high calcium 
limestone found for example at Quincy, Alton, Stolle, Cliester 
(Menard), Anna, and many other places in central and southern 
Illinois. 

Making Plant Food Available — It is an absolute essential 
in agriculture to have plant food in the soil. If it is not present 
in abundance it should be supplied in the manner that is most 
economical and profitable, and tliat which is removed in crops 
should be replaced so far as practicable and profitable, either by 



FOR BETTER CROPS 13 

returning it in farm manure, or by plowing under green manures, 
corn stalks, straw, and other coarse products, and by adding 
phosphate and limestone. 

With a good supply of plant food stored in the soil, then the 
thing of greatest importance in the business of farming is 
the liberation of sufficient plant food during the growing season 
to meet the needs of maximum profitable crops. While thorough 
tillage aids in this process, by far the most effective and practical 
means within the farmers' own control for liberating plant food 
from the soil's supply or from insoluble material, as natural rock 
phosphate which may have been applied, is decaying vegetable 
matter. 

The farmer or landowner whose farm practice includes these 
two points; that is, (1) plenty of plant food stored in the soil, or 
added to it when necessary, and (2) plenty of decaying organic 




-■*z ^i 



' 4 


' 


I* i 


k 


.*- 




<*&-' 


-.^ 




■ -:-'' 


i ♦ 


^^i-'^ 



-'^i^^ 




A ^Tasteful practice 

matter to liberate plant food for the crop needs, will have in 
operation a system of agriculture which is permanent. 

The one point is no more important or essential than the 
other. The man who tries to maintain the fertility of his soil 
and who hopes to continue to grow large, profitable grain crops 
without the use of legume crops or plowing under farm manures 
or coarse products, but who uses high-priced soluble manufac- 
tured commerical fertilizers, is unwise, and ultimately his land 
will probably follow the history of the lands which have been 
practically ruined by such practice in the eastern states. 

On the other hand, the man, who thinks the productive 
capacity of the ordinary prairie land in the humid regions of 
Central United States can be permanently maintained merely 
by the use of clover in crop rotation, is also unwise, for this is 
absolutely impossible. So far as phosphorus and other minerals 
are concerned, the use of clover in crop rotation is one of our 
most effective means of liberating those plant food elements 
from the soil so that they may be removed in subsequent grain 



14 FOB BETTER CBOPS 

crops. Furthermore, clover and other legumes are themselves 
gross feeders on phosphorus, calcium, and potassium. 

It is almost inexplicable that there are people who write and 
speak at great length and with great energy on the tremendous 
importance of adding nitrogen to the soil as an element of plant 
food, but who completely ignore and even deprecate the matter 
of maintaining in the soil a supply of phosphorus from which 
we can liberate suflHcient amounts for large crops. 

No man can afford to ignore the truth. If there are soils 
which contain so little phosphorus that we cannot by profitable 
means liberate sufficient to meet the requirements of large 
crops, then we should increase the supply; and every man should 
be sufficiently unpreju.diced to ask frankly whether it is more 
sensible and more profitable positively to increase the total sup- 
ply of any element of plant food in his soil, or to continue to 
decrease it by means of crop rotations and the use of decaying 
organic matter. 



lalK 


,<JmBMHBB| 


■ 


i 




.-;^ 


!i^ 


t 




v^^' 



A unilorm application of the manure makes all the plant £ood 
available 

For the ordinary, strictly live-stock farm from which only 
hogs and cattle are sold, there is no such thing as reducing tlie 
supply of potassium if all liquid and solid manure is carefully 
saved and returned to the soil, because, as before stated, practi- 
cally all of the potassium contained in the feed is returned in 
the manure. In dairy farming a small amount of potassium 
leaves the farm if milk is sold. 

But even in live-stock farming with all manure saved and 
returned to the land, we still lose the phosphorus carried away 
in bones, flesh, and milk, and this fact should not be ignored by 
the farmer whose crop yields are already limited because of 
insufficient supplies of phosphorus, even with abundant use of 
decaying organic matter supplied in clover and farm manure. 
Indeed not infrequently we find farmers whose land is so rich in 
nitrogen and potassium that they grow great crops of straw and 
stalks, but the phosphorus is so limited that the actual yield of 
grain produced is only one-lialf or two-thirds what it should be. 



FOB BETTER CBOPS 



15 



Let us remember that a balanced ration is just as important for 
corn as for cattle, and that phosphorus is required largely foi' 
the grain. 

Soils Deficient in Nitrogen — It should be understood that 
the nitrogen in the soil is measured by the organic matter, for 
the nitrogen is practically all contained in the organic matter. 
Consequently soils which are deficient in organic matter are also 
deficient in nitrogen. 

There are two classes of soils which are commonly much more 
deficient in nitrogen than in other plant foods. These are the 
very sandy soils and the very rolling or steeply sloping hill 
lands. 

Improving Sandy Land — Wl:iile the sandy lands are not 
rich in phosphorus and potassium, they are as a rule moderately 
well supplied with those elements, and such soils are so porous 
that they afford a very deep feeding range for the plant roots, so 
that the actual percentage composition in mineral plant food 
does not fully measure the possible productive capacity of sandy 
soils as compared with more compact silt or clay soils. 

As a general rule if the three elements, nitrogen, phosphorus, 
and potassium be added separately to three different plots 
of very sandy land, the nitrogen will increase the yield, while 
little or no increase will be produced by either phosphorus or 
potassium. After plenty of nitrogen has been provided, then 
the addition of potassium will still further increase the yield. 
Actual results obtained on tlie University of Illinois soil experi- 
ment field on the sandy land near Green Valley, Illinois, will 
serve to illustrate this: 

Crop Yields in Soil Experiments 
Sandy Soil near Green Valley, Illinois 



Soil Treatment Applied 



Nitrogen 

Phosphorus .. 

Potassium 

Nitrogen, phosphorus 
Nitrogen, potassium 



1902 


1903 


1904 


1905 


1906 


Corn 


Corn 


Oats 


Wheat 


Corn 


Bushels 


Bushels 


Bushels 


Bushels 


Bu. 


69 


65 


44 


24 


63 


30 


25 


20 


17 


10 


23 


20 


17 


17 


8 


57 


70 


52 


27 


71 


70 


73 


55 


37 


75 



1909 
Corn 
Bu. 



59 

13 
13 
65 

74 



It will be noted that where nitrogen was applied, the yield is 
more than double that obtained with either of the other elements. 
Except in 1902, phosphorus shows some effect when added to 
nitrogen, but potassium with nitrogen is more effective, especially 
in 1905, when it gave a yield of wheat thirteen bushels higher 
than was obtained with nitrogen alone. It should be stated, 
perhaps, that it is exceedingly ditficult to select a number of 
exactly uniform plots for experimental use on this kind of soil 



16 



FOR BETTER CROPS 



and small differences may be attributed to soil variation, but the 
marked and uniform effects of nitrogen, and of nitrogen with 
potassium, are characteristic of such soil, and the further addition 
of phosphorus may sometimes prove profitable. 

These results help to explain the marked effect of farm manure 
on sandy soils, especially when used for a crop rotation which 
includes legumes. Both the legumes and manure will furnish 
nitrogen, and the manure is also well supplied with potassium, 
the bedding being rich in potassium, and all potassium in the 
feed being returned in tlie manure. It may be noted that on 
very sandy lands clover does not grow well, but either cow peas 
or soy beans is an excellent substitute for clover, as both do well 
on very sandy soil. 

It is exceedingly important that so far as possible all crops 
shall be fed and the manure shall be carefully saved and re- 
turned to such land, not only for its plant food value, but also 
for the organic matter which is needed to improve the physical 
condition of the soil. 

Improving Worn Hill Land — In actual field experiments 
on worn hill land on the University of Illinois soil experiment 
field, near Vienna, 111., the following results have been obtained 
in a three-year rotation of wheat, corn, and cow peas. By 
"legume" treatment is meant the growing of legume crops or 
catch crops, as cow peas in the corn, or after the wheat, in the 
same season, which are turned under for the nitrogen and 
organic matter wliich they add to the soil. 

Crop Yields in Soil. Experiments 
Worn Hill Land near Vienna, Illinois 



Soil Treatment Applied 



1903 
Yields 



1904 

Yields 



1905 
Yields 



Wheat, Bushels per Acre 



None 

Legume - -. 

Legume, limestone 

Legume, limestone, phosphorus 

Legume, limestone, phosphorus, potassium 






7 


1 


1 


1 


10 


8 


15 


11 


18 



1 
11 

18 
26 
30 



Corn, Bushels per Acre 



None .- 

Legume .-. 

Legume, limestone 

Legume, limestone, phosphorus 

Legume, limestone, phosphorus, potassium. 



9 


31 


5 


3»i 


8 


19 


1 


49 


11 


45 



38 
43 
62 
57 

57 



The year 1903 was a very poor season for both corn and wheat. 
It will be seen that limestone and legumes (cow peas or clover) 
have very great power to improve this class of soils. 

As yet the addition of phosphorus and potassium has not 



FOR BETTER CROPS 



17 



increased the corn yields, altliough with wheat, phosphorus has 
given a marked increase and potassium some further gain, not- 
witlistanding the fact that these two best treated plot series 
were naturally slightly less productive than the other three 
of the series. With more organic matter the effect of applied 
potassium will probably disappear. 

Soils Deficient in Phosphorus — Phospliorus is the element 
of plant food most likely to be delicient in the common gently 
rolling prairie or upland timber soils of Central United States, 
as in Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. Phosphorus is also commonly 
found to be one of the most deficient plant foods in long culti- 
vated soils in eastern and southern United States. 

The total amount of phosphorus contained in the surface 
seven inches of the commonest type of soil in the Illinois corn 
belt is no more than would be required for fifty crops of corn of 
100 bushels each, or for about seventy such crops if the grain 
only were removed from the land. The next soil stratum is 
poorer in phosphorus than the surface soil and even a rich sub- 
soil is of little value when buried beneath a worn out surface. 

The common so-called worn out soil of southern Illinois con- 
tains but little more than half as much phosphorus as the corn 
belt soil. If clover failure is becoming more frequent than 
formerly on Illinois soils it is one of the strong evidences of 
insufficient phosphorus. 

The results obtained from the University of Illinois soil 
experiment field near Bloomington, 111., on the typical slightly 
rolling prairie land of the central Illinois corn belt will serve to 
demonstrate that phosphorus is the element which limits crop 
yields on soils of this character, notwithstanding the fact that 
this soil is valued at not less than $150 an acre and is still pro- 
ducing very profitable crops even for land of that valuation. 

Crop Yields in Soil Experiments 
Typical Corn Belt Prairie Soil near Bloomington, Illinois 



Plant Food Applied 



1903 

Corn 

Bushels 



1904 

Oats 
Bushels 



1905 
Wheat 
Bushels 



None 

Nitrogen 

Phosphorus 

Potassium . . 

Nitrogen, phosphorus 

Nitrogen, potassium 

Phosphorus, potassium 

Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium 

Gain for phosphorus when added to ni- 
trogen 



60 
60 
73 

56 



61 
70 
73 
63 



29 
31 
39 
33 



78 
59 
75 
81 



85 
66 
70 
91 



51 
30 
38 
52 



18 



15 



20 



18 



FOR BETTER CROPS 



It will be seen that the addition of nitrogen or potassium, 
separately or together, produces little benefit and sometimes 
the effect is a decrease in yield, although nitrogen did appre- 
ciably increase the yield of oats in 1904. After phosphorus has 
been applied, then nitrogen can be utilized with marked benefit. 

Phosphorus produced a large increase in each crop even when 
applied alone, but when applied after nitrogen the increase was 
exceedingly marked, amounting to 18 bushels increase in corn, 15 
in oats, and 20 bushels increase in the yield of wheat. While 
nitrogen was applied in commerical form (dried blood) in these 
experiments, these results emphasize the very great importance 
of using phosphorvis in connection with clover and farm manure 
for improving this soil. 

The use of commercial nitrogen was discontinued after 1905, 
but the addition of phosphorus produced 1.07 tons more clover 
in 1906, 19 bushels more corn in 1907, 12,2 bushels more corn in 
1908, and 10.2 bushels more oats in 1909. 

The possible effect of phosphorus on the clover crop itself 
may be seen in the results obtained in 1905 on the University of 
Illinois soil experiment field at Urbana, Illinois, which is also 
situated on good Illinois prairie soil. By "legume" treatment 
is meant the growing of a catch crop of cow peas or clover in 
the corn when it is "laid bv." 



Crop Yields in Soil Experiments 
Typical Corn Belt Prairie Soil, near Urbana, Illinois 



Soil 
Plot 
No. 


Three Years' 
Average Before 

Treatment 
Corn, Bushels 


Soil Treatment Applied 


1905 

Clover 
Tons per Acre 


201 
20-> 


60 ■] 

64 

63 
61 

61 , 


Aver. 
> 61.8 
Bu. 


None - 

Legume - . 


1.26-1 

1.21 

1.15 

1.32 

1.21, 


Aver. 


203 


None, - 


[ 1.23 


204 


Legume, lime - 


Tons 


205 


Lime 




206 
207 
208 
209 
210 


64 ^ 
62 
58 
61 
62 , 


Aver. 
> 61.4 
Bu. 


Legume, lime, phosphorus . 

Lime, phosphorus . 
Legume, lime, phos., potass. 

Lime, phos., potass. 

Lime, phos., potass. 


2.91" 

2.91 

3.19 

3.19 

3.41, 


Aver. 

> 3.12 

Tons 



It will be seen that previous to the beginning of this soil 
treatment, the last five plots yielded no more than the first five; 
but after four years of soil treatment, the yield of clover was 
only 1.23 tons without phosphorus, while 3.12 tons of well field- 
cured clover hay were produced where phosphorus had been 
applied. The effect of potassium was slight. 



FOR BETTER CROPS 



19 



Of course this increased crop of clover means a larger yield 
of corn to follow, and both clover and corn mean more farm 
manure for further soil improvement or maintenance. 

As an average of the tliree years, 1907 to 1909, plots six and 
seven produced seventeen and one-half busliels more corn, seven 
bushels more oats, 1720 pounds more clover hay, and forty-three 
pounds more clover seed, per acre, than plots four and five; 
these increases being due to the application of phosphorus. In 
the later years the use of limestone is also producing profitable 
increases on the older prairie lands of the corn belt. 

Soils Deficient in Both Phosphorus and Lime — Soils on 
which clover can not be grown successfully even before they are 




The -way io secure uniform fertilization of the soil 



badly worn are usually acid and consequently deficient in lime- 
stone, but as a matter of fact such soils are usually deficient in 
both limestone and pliosphorus. 

The effect of limestone and of limestone and phosphorus in 
connection with legume treatment on the University of Illinois 
soil experiment field near Odin, Illinois, will serve to demon- 
strate tlie need of both limestone and phosphorus on such soils 
as are commonly called "clay land," which refuses to grow 
clover. 

Wheat Yields in Soil Experiments 

Typical Wheat Belt Prairie Soil in "Egypt," near Odin, 
Illinois 



Soil Treatment Applied 


Yield per Acre 

Average of 

Eight Years 


None - 


11 Bu. 


Legume ... 


12 Bu. 


Legume, limestone. 

Legume, limestone, phosphorus 

Legume, limestone, phosphorus, potassium .-. 


17 Bu. 
26 Bu. 
28 Bu. 


Gain for legume, limestone, phosphorus treatment 


15 Bu. 



20 FOR BETTER CROPS 

On similar soil in Wayne county in soutliern Illinois, an 
experiment field was started on forty acres of land in 1905. A 
four-year rotation of wheat, clover, corn, and cow peas (or soy 
beans) is practiced on four ten-acre fields, so that each crop may 
be represented every year. Two tons of ground limestone and 
one ton of fine ground raw roclc phosphate, per acre, are applied 
once in four years on part of each field, while no limestone or 
phosphate are applied to the remainder, which is cropped and 
treated alike in all other respects. At $1.25 per ton for the 
limestone and $7.50 per ton for the phosphate, the cost of tliese 
materials amounts to $10.00 per acre once in four years; whereas, 
in 1910 the land treated with limestone and pliosphate produced 
17 bushels more wheat, 2i tons more clover (in two cuttings) 20 
bushels more corn, and nearly 8 bushels more soy beans, per 
acre, tlian the land not so treated. Here is very satisfactory 
profit and positive soil enricliment. Still greater benefit is ex^ 
pected in tlie future, because hereafter the manure applied or 
tlie clover and crop residues to be plowed under will be in 
proportion to the crop yields of the previous rotation. 

Tlie treatment recommended for these soils, which are well 
represented by the extensive worn "clay lands" in Ohio, Indiana, 
southern Illinois ("Egypt"), and Missouri, is as follows: 

Apply 1,000 to 2,000 pounds to the acre of finely ground 
natural rock pliosphate with as much organic matter as possible 
(manure, legume crops, etc.,) and plow under, then apply two 
or three tons to the acre of ground natural limestone and mix 
with the surface soil in preparing the seed bed, and then grow 
a good rotation of crops, such as wheat, clover, corn, and cow 
peas, or wheat, clover, wheat, clover, corn and cow peas; or 
corn, cow peas, wheat, meadow and pasture (clover and timothy 
being seeded witii tlie wheat crop for two or three years' 
meadow and pasture). At the end of the rotation another 
heavy application of rock pliosphate in connection with all availa- 
ble farm manure, should be made, preferably to the pasture 
ground and plowed under for corn. 

If necessary, limestone must be added occasionally to keep 
the soil sweet. About two tons per acre every rotation will be 
sufficient. (Blue litmus paper, which can be obtained from a 
drug store, if placed in contact with the moist soil for 20 min- 
utes will be turned red if the soil is sour). 

The Value of Farm Manure — Farm manure always has 
been and probably always will be one of the most important and 
abundant materials for soil improvement. It is a necessary 
product on every farm and on stock farms a product which 
accumulates in very large amounts. If not used for soil im- 
provement, it becomes a worthless nuisance about the stables, 
whether in the city or in the country. 



22 FOR BETTER GROPH 

A conservative estimate places the annual production of 
farm manure in the United States at a billion tons. The actual 
agricultural value of fresh farm manure containing both the 
liquid and solid excrements is not less than $2 a ton, whether 
the value is measured in terms of plant food elements actually 
contained in the manure as determined by chemical analysis of 
the manure and the market values of the elements, or whether 
the value is measured by tlie actual increase in crop yields pro- 
duced by the use of the manure on ordinary long cultivated 
soils. 

Waste of Farm Manure and Land Ruin — If fresh farm 
manure is thrown out and exposed to the weather for six months 
in summer, one-half of its total weight of dry matter is lost, and 
more than one-half of its value as a fertilizer is lost. In most 
newer countries there is enormous and shameful if not wicked 
waste of farm manure. In older countries it is the rule to save 
all possible farm manure with very great care, although this 
rule is too frequently broken by the careless, ignorant, or short- 
sighted. 

As a whole, the unnecessary waste and loss of farm manure 
which occurs in the United States each year is equal in value to 
several times the value of all commercial fertilizers used in this 
country. Sometimes the waste of farm manure and the purchase 
of commercial fertilizers occur upon the same farm. In such 
cases the commercial fertilizer used is usually a so-called "com- 
plete" fertilizer, containing acid phosphate with a trace of 
nitrogen and potassium too small to add appreciably to its value, 
and it is commonly applied in amounts which supply less plant 
food than the crops actually remove, the small amount of soluble 
plant food applied being supplemented by that which the soil 
would naturally give up, together with what can be forced from 
the soil by the stimulating action of the soluble corrosive acid 
salts and manufactured land-plaster contained in such fertilizers. 

One of the most common commercial fertilizers used in the 
United States contains the equivalent of two per cent of am- 
monia, eight per cent of falsely so-called "phosphoric acid," and 
two per cent of potash, corresponding to less than four pounds 
of nitrogen, seven pounds of phosphorus, and less than four 
pounds of potassium in 200 pounds, the most common applica- 
tion per acre; whereas a 100-bushel crop of corn removes from 
the soil not four, but 150 pounds of nitrogen, not seven but 
twenty-three pounds of phosphorus, and not four but seventy- 
live pounds of potassium. 

Saving Farm Manure — In order to retain the full amou«t 
and full value of farm manure, it should be removed directly 
from the stall or covered feed lot and spread at once upon the 
land. Where the winters are moderately cold and free f/om 



FOtt BETTER CROPS 



heavy rains there is little loss if the manure is allowed to accumu- 
late during sucli weather in a small, uncovered feed lot, pro- 
vided it is hauled out and spread upon the land in the early 
spring. Manure may be allowed to accumulate without much 
loss in deep stalls for several weeks if plenty of absorbent bed- 
ding is used, and then it may be hauled from the stall directly 
to the field and spread. 

It should be the rule never to handle manure more than 
once. When taken from the stable or feeding shed it should be 
at once loaded onto the spreader and hauled to the field. If 
manure is produced at the rate of two loads or more a week, the 
convenience and importance of taking this manure directly 
from the stable and spreading it at once upon the field will cer- 
tainly justify providing a manure spreader or special wagon to 
be used solely for this purpose. 




This field requires a heavy application of manure 

Increasing the Value of Farm Manure — While ordinary 
fr§sh farm manure is worth $2 a ton for use on ordinary soils, its 
value can easily be increased to $3 a ton net, by replacing in 
liberal amounts of low-priced, very finely ground natural rock 
phosphate, the element phosphorus, which the animals have 
extracted from the feed and used in making bone, thus leaving 
the manure poor in phosphorus as compared with the crops 
grown and fed. 

It should be remembered that practically all potassium con- 
tained in the feed is returned in the liquid and solid excrements 
and that the nitrogen, which is in part retained by the animal 
and in part returned in the manure, can be fully maintained by 
supplementing the farm manure with clover grown in the crop 
rotations and plowed under. 

By far the most complete and valuable work ever reported 
upon the subject of increasing the value of farm manure by the 
addition of natural rock phosphate has been done by the Ohio 
agricultural experiment station under the direction of Professor 



24 FOB BETTER CBOPS 

. ^ 

Charles E. Thorne in an extensive and most trustworthy series 
of experiments extending over a period of thirteen years. 

As a rule for use on land which is deficient in phosphorus, 
rock phosphate should be mixed with average manure in such 
proportions that at least 250 pounds of rock phosphate per acre 
would be provided for each year. Thus for a four-year rotation, 
Including corn for two years, oats for tiie third year and clover 
for the fourth year, about 1,000 pounds of rock phosphate an acre 
should be applied to the clover ground in connection with all 
available farm manure and plowed under for corn. If the land 
is manured once in four years with ten loads of manure to the 
acre, then 1,000 pounds of rock phosphate should be applied with 
each load. 

A very simple and satisfactory method of applying rock phos- 
phate to the land, which involves practically no extra labor or 




Manure spreaders on a Western farm 

loss of time, is to load the manure spreader part full of manute, 
then scatter one hundred pounds of rock phosphate over it as 
uniformly as possible, finish loading, and drive to the field and 
spread the phosphated manure. This brings about a very com- 
plete and intimate mixture of the manure and rock phosphate, 
and this is exceedingly important, because the decaying organic 
matter must be in intimate contact with the rock phosphate in 
order to liberate the phosphorus for the use of the crops. Where 
manure is not available, more clover must be plowed under. 

A System of Permanent Agriculture — This practice of 
applying liberal amounts of natural rock phosphate in connection 
with sutficient clover, or with all of the farm manure which can 
be made on tlie farm from the hay, straw, and other coarse 
products and from the oats or other low-priced grains, together 
with the use of a good rotation, including plenty of clover, pro- 
vides for an absolutely permanent system of agriculture, even 



FOli BETTER CHOPS 25 



though high-priced grains and animal products are sold from the 
farm. It is a system under which the land grows richer and 
richer and more and more productive and valuable, instead of 
becoming poorer and less productive, as has been the case with 
by far the larger part of the older cultivated lands in the United 
States. 

For more complete data, simple discussion, and plain explana- 
tion of the most essential information tlie world affords, relating 
to soils and methods of soil improvement, the reader is referred 
to a book on "Soil P^ertility and Permanent Agriculture," pub- 
lished by Ginn & Company, of Boston, Massachussetts. 




Small Grain Growing 

MAGNITUDE OF THE INDUSTRY— DEVELOPMENT OF 
NEW VARIETIES— VARIETAL DIFFERENCES, ETC. 



By Willet M. Hays 

Assistant Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 




Seven Farinaceous SmaH Grains — 

Excluding corn, the big king of the cereals, 
we have seven farinaceous grains which 
for the purpose of this article we shall 
call the small grains. 

These with their respective values for 
1899, as shown by the twelfth census, 
are: Wheat, $370,000,000; oats, $217,000,000; 
barley, $42,000,000; rye, $12,000,000; rice, 
$8,000,000; buckwheat, $6,000,000; while for 
the millets or non-saccharine sorghums, 
the value was not determined. 
As shown by the figures for the crop of 1910 published in 
December by the United States Department of Agriculture, the 
values of these crops had grown, respectively, to the following: 
Wheat, $621,000,000; oats, $385,000,000; barley, $94,000,000, rye, 
$24,000,000; rice, $17,000,000; buckwheat, $11,000,000. 

Wheat the Golden Queen of the Harvests — Men are en- 
chanted with the sowing of wheat seeds, with harvesting the 
golden fields of grain, with the hum of the great threshing 
machine, with the movement of the great cars and ships laden 
with the trillions of berries, with the burring of the mighty 
mills, with the mysteries of the bake oven, and with the never 
cloying pleasures of white bread covered with June-yellow 
butter. 

If a grain of wheat could tell the story of its brothers, sisters, 
father, mother, uncles, aunts, and its other relatives near and 
remote, it would equal any fairy tale. 

One kind of berry would tell of its origin in England, another 
in France, another in Germany, and perchance another in Russia; 
each with its forbears back in some remote neighborhood, or 
may be in still another country, with possibly a legend as to its 
unknown wild parentage. 

Until in recent decades the history of the varieties of wheat, 
and of the other cereals is not of record. No doubt selection by 
man in more or less of a blundering way lias gone on for many 



FOR BETTER CROPS 27 

centuries. Hybridizing, by natural agencies, also may have 
occasionally occurred often enough to aid materially in making 
new varieties by blending the good qualities of two or more 
parent Icinds. 

Few Varieties in World's Great;.Wheat Crop— At present 
there are thousands of varieties of wheat, most of which have 
been originated in recent years by wheat breeders working with 
more or less of system. But the world's great crop of wheat is 
nearly all produced by a few dozen varieties. 

Tlie fingers of both hands would enumerate the main varieties 
in this country, each of which spreads over not more than 
several states. 

In Europe likewise there is a group of several varieties of 
wheat which make the bulk of the crop. And it is so with the 
other cereals, there is a relatively small number of dominating 
varieties. 

Though the recent great activity in breeding wheat is 
resulting in originating thousands, if not tens of thousands of 
new selected and new hybrid wheats, this work is done with 
such care that only the relatively few best will escape the liands 
of the experiment station or other trained breeders. 

Small Yield in America a National Disgrace — That 
American wheat yields an average of less than fifteen busliels 
per acre is a national disgrace which can be cured by using two 
means: 

The betterment of the soil conditions under which the crop 
may yield more. 

The improvement of tlie yielding power of the varieties 
planted. 

Since the improvement of the fields may be discussed at once 
for all six of tliB small grains, that will be taken up first, and 
the breeding Of each crop will be dealt with more in detail 
under the respective species. 

Our national averaige yield of wheat should be increased from 
fifteen to twenty-five bushels per acre. By better preparation 
of the land five bushels of this increase can be gained and by 
wheat breeding the other five bushels. 

More Careful Crop Rotation to Pay the Cost — The five 
bushels gain from better organized field and farm management 
will probably cost three dollars annually; and this must be paid 
by the grower in a more carefully managed sclieme of crop 
rotation, in fertilizers, and in cleaner and better intercultural 
tillage of the hoed crops with which the wheat alternates in the 
rotation. 

The five bushels from breeding and good seed will not cost 
ten cents an acre, and of this the national and state governments 




28 



FOB BETTER CROPS 29 

will pay part for breeding work on experiment farms. The farm- 
er's part in obtaining seed of the new varieties and in raising, 
caring for, and preparing his seed will not be appreciably greater 
than now. 

Place of Grains in the Rotation — Wheat and Other small 
grains are somewhat sensitive to the condition in which the 
previous crop left tlie soil. They do not thrive well after a crop 
of small grain. In many cases they will yield twenty or thirty 
per cent more after a hoed crop, as corn or potatoes, or after a 
crop of grass, clover, or alfalfa than after a small grain crop. 

Though these grains are benetited by a direct application of 
either barn or commercial fertilizer on poor soils, they are some- 
times injured by the application of barn manure on rich soils. 

Generally barnyard manure will give more final returns by 
the acre to the farm if applied to a previous cultivated crop as 
corn, or even to tlie grass crop, in rotation; the wheat, oats, 
barley, or other grain thus receiving the residual effect. 

On new and other rich soils, barnyard manure often overdoes 
the small grain crop by causing it to grow heavy in the straw 
and to lodge and produce light, shrunken grain, though it helps 
without injuring the other crops mentioned, which are grown in 
rotation with wheat. 

Some of the Best Plans of Rotation — A good five-year 
rotation for grain in some of the states of the middle northwest 
is first year, small grain; second and third years, meadow and 
pasture of grasses and clovers seeded the first year with the 
grain; fourth year, small grain; fifth year, corn, applying the 
manure before the corn crop; then, beginning .the second five- 
year period, repeat the rotation. 

A four-year rotation found useful on some farms is as follows: 
first year, small grain; second year, red clover; third year, small 
grain; fourth year, corn; and repeat. 

A three-year rotation as follows gives splendid conditions for 
the wheat or other small grain: First year, small grain; second 
year, red clover; third year, corn; and repeat. 

Small grain and corn in a two-year rotation place the land in 
good condition for each crop of grain. 

In the south, cotton and cow peas can take the place of the 
corn and clover in a four, three, or two-year rotation; and in many 
cases the cow peas may follow the winter wheat, making two 
crops in one year, thus shortening the rotation by gaining one 
year in the four or three-year rotation. 

By following some such method of natural farming the legu- 
minous crops help to add nitrogen and organic substance to the 
soil surface of weeds and will provide the rather well compacted 
furrow slice needed to cause the small grain plant to stool well 
and to thrive throughout its growth. 



30 FOB BETTER CBOBS 

Other Crops Benefited by Rotation Scheme — That the 
rotation scheme is not all to favor the small grain crop may be 
shown in case of the five-year rotation first named. 

The wheat, by serving as a nurse crop, among which the 
newly seeded grass and clover may pass their first unproductive 
season without cost, prepares the land for the two crops of 
grass. The grass crops by cleaning, resting, and enriching the 
soil prepare the land for a good crop of small grain the fourth 
year. The second crop of small grain which may often be 
followed with a crop of rye or turnips sown in spring to make 
pasturage among the grain stubble in autumn, furnishes con- 
ditions under which the manure may be liauled out and plowed 
under in fall, winter, or spring in preparation for the corn crop. 
The corn grown the fifth year reduces the manure from too 
great activity, clears the surface soil of weeds, and compacts 
the furrow slice so that it is in nearly an ideal condition ubder 
which the small grain may be put in with shoe or hoe drill or 
broadcast and disked in or covered in other suitable ways, and 
the second series of five yearly crops is thus started out in good 
condition. 

Chemical Fertilizer Tests Not Expensive — It is not ex- 
pensive to make trials of chemical fertilizers on a given farm, 
or on a given soil type. Thus a farmer, or a group of co-operating 
farmers, can easily test their soils. 

Corn is a splendid crop to use in the north, and corn or cotton 
in the south. The plots may be marked and the marks preserved 
for a year so that the residual effect on the following crop of 
grain may be observed, provided the effect is recorded. 

In making the trial with corn, the following general plan may 
be pursued: Apply to plots three or more rows wide and ten or 
more rods long, on land where uniform plots may be obtained 
with alternating check plots not manured between, such amounts 
of nitrogenous, phosphoric, and potash fertilizers and lime as 
may be advised by the agriculturist of your state experiment 
station; and follow his instructions as to time and manner of 
application also. 

When the corn or cotton is ripe, harvest the fertilized plots 
and the check plots separately, and measure or weigh so as to 
determine whether the fertilizer gave any additional yield. It 
is wise to have one or two alley rows between each two plots, 
because corn roots reach over across the row, often extending 
five feet from the hill. 

If these preliminary trials show that the soil is weak along 
any one line of plant food, or needs lime to correct acidity, the 
experiments should be continued along that line to determine 
how much fertilizers to use and to which crop in tlie rotation to 
apply tliem. 



FOR BETTER CROPS 31 

Allotment of Land to United States Crops — This country 
has about a billion acres in farms, half of which is improved 
land and half unimproved. 

Of the 500,000,000 acres of improved land, corn covers about 
100,000,000 acres and the small cereals a similar amount, while 
cotton covers a third as much as corn, and grass lands for hay 
and summer forage cover two-thirds as much as corn. 

There are probably 200,000,000 acres in grass, and a total of 
300,000,000 acres in all other field, orchard, and garden crops. 

Thus of the 500,000,000 improved acres we have 200,000,000 
acres in pasture grasses, 100,000,000 in corn, 100,000,000 in small 
cereals, 100,000,000 acres in hay, summer forage, potatoes, beans, 
and other minor field crops and the more intensified crops of the 
orchard and garden. 




Making the acres smile 

Cereals from Canada to the Gulf — Cereal growing extends 
from the Canadian partition fence down nearly to the Gulf of 
Mexico, and from Maine to Calif ornia, and our Dominion brethren 
grow wheat some distance northv^ard in their broad estate, 
especially in the expansive plains west and northwest of Winnipeg. 

In the Euro-Asiatic continent there is a similar band of 
small cereal areas which extends from far north in the Scandi- 
navian peninsula and in northern Russia down past the Holy 
Land and even into elevated regions in India. 

There is a temperate zonal strip in the southern hemisphere 
also, where the cereal band crosses southern South America, 
southern Africa, and southern Australasia and includes many 
islands. 

Where it Pays Best to Baise Cereals' — On what part of 
Uncle Sam's estate does the cultivation of the small cereals 



32 FOR BETTER CROPS 

most naturally belong ? Only a small part of the wheat, oats, 
and barley should be grown below Mason and Dixon's line, 
because the yield is not sufficiently large to justify it in com- 
parison with values produced by crops of cotton, corn, rice, 
cow peas, and garden and orchard crops. 

Above that line and well toward the Canadian border winter 
wheat yields moderate value to the acre. It here holds a splen- 
did place in the rotation, because it follows corn so well, re- 
quires labor at a time of year when other crops are not suffering 
and serves as a nurse crop for clover and grass seeds planted to 
make a crop the following year. 

Along the northern border and over in Canada spring wheat 
takes the place of the winter wheat, though its average value 
to the acre is even lower. 



The work of harvest made easy 

Oats do not thrive well so far south as does winter wheat, 
not having been as yet bred for hot summer weather, but are 
grown nearly to the Gulf. The barley zone is still further north 
than the oats. 

Rye sown in the autumn is hardy to the northern counties of 
the United States and thrives south to Mason and Dixon's line. 
The millets and non-saccharine sorghums are grown well to the 
north and kaffir corn has an especial usefulness on the droughty 
plains where it produces grain with light rainfall. 

Great Advance in Rice Growing in America — Rice on the 
other hand has a distinctly southern habitat and is local. The 
rice area recently has mainly moved from the Atlantic coast 
states to Louisiana and Texas and its area has greatly extended. 
Its method of cultivation too has radically changed, and it has 
now come under America's broad plan of farming by machinery. 



FOR BETTER CROPS 



33 



Rice has been made more plentiful and cheaper. Broader acres, 
machinery, better varieties, and better knowledge of methods 
of cultivation have in the last five years revolutionized rice 
growing. 

Flax is not one of the cereals, but as it is grown at the same 
place in the rotation, requires the same preparation of the soil, 
and affects the land in much the same way as do the small 
cereals, its cultivation may be discussed with theirs. 

It is certain that economic factors have determined the pres- 
ent distribution of the small cereals. 

In North Dakota, for example, wheat, oats, flax, barley, and 
millet seed pay better than corn ; therefore the farmers are con- 
strained to grow as large an acreage of these money crops as is 
consistent with keeping their lands free of weeds, in good Condi- 




Harvesting heavy M'heat 



tion for grain, strong in fertility, and otherwise in condition for 
good crops of these grains. 

Alternation With Fallow in Semi-arid West — Out in the 

western semi-arid regions, instead of rotating the grains with 
corn and grasses they alternate them with the bare fallow, thus 
to keep down weeds, to secure good mechanical preparation of 
the furrow slice, but especially to conserve the water of the 
alternate year so as to supply the growing crop with the surplus 
water of two years instead of one. 

The frequent droughts, too, make frequent seeding to clovers 
and grasses uncertain, so that the plan in these western-north- 
western parts is to grow grain for some years continuously and 
then to seed to grass for some years, possibly injecting one crop 
of corn in among the crops of grain. 

Thus a rotation is arranged as follows: First and second 



34 FOR BETTER CROPS 

years, grain ; third, fourth, and fifth years, grass and clover ; 
sixth and seventh years, grain ; eighth year, corn ; then repeat 
by eight-year rotation period. 

Stock Feed More Profitable in Iowa — In lowa, on the 
other hand, where corn, mainly fed to live stoclc, and pastures of 
clover and grasses, yield more value to the acre, the grains are 
being crowded down to a limited area. 

There tliese crops are often chosen because of the need of a 
nurse crop to produce during the year of seeding, the timothy 
and clover sown for hay or pasture in following seasons. And 
though wheat and flax do not average as much value to the acre 
as corn and oats, barley and rye do not produce as much feed value 
to the acre as corn or grass; and though all these small grain 
crops deplete the soil more than crops of corn or grass, yet in 
limited areas they round out the farm management plan. 

If we can sell more live stock products Iowa and surrounding 
states can afford still further to reduce the acreage of these soil 
consuming, weed increasing crops, unless prices for these com- 
modities increase. The world needs the amount of cereals now 
grown, but other countries where labor is not so dear are will- 
ing to produce them at a rather low price per acre and per worker. 

Only better varieties for each and all of the many localities, 
better preparation of soil by rotation, good cultivation, and cheap 
effective fertilization will make it practicable to retain our 
present acreage. 

Handicap in Competition w^ith Live Stock — Live stock 
and the crops they require are a paying proposition with which 
grains for sale mustcompete. They have two great handicaps — 
they bring in less money and they leave the soil impoverished 
instead of richer. 

As a matter of practical business most of the small grains in 
American agriculture are produced in connection with live stock 
products. By alternating them with the crops fed to livestock, 
the land is prepared for the grains; often at the expense of the 
future crops for live stocks. 

From Illinois eastward and southward, commercial fertilizers 
are gradually coming into extensive use, placing the production 
of these crops on the same basis as that on which grains are 
grown in much of Europe. The use of commercial fertilizers 
for this purpose will of necessity gradually extend westward, 
and to other regions where the lands are now new. 

The world will not rapidly cliange the proportionate amounts 
of cereal and live stock products it demands, and these, the one 
competing with the other, will each regulate the price of the 
other. 

The great cities which consume tlie surplus of these products 



FOB BETTEB CROPS 



35 



keep bowling- along in their growth and in their ever-increasing 
ability per capita to purchase meat as well as bread. 

The world's most rapid expansion of acreages of grain and 
live stock production was passed during the earlier years of 
railway and steamsliip transportation when the body of the 
world's great continental prairies was upturned with the plow. 

The next expansion of production will no doubt be largely 
due to tlie better farm methods and the better breeds and 
varieties which the bounding growth of agricultural science is 
ready to bring forth. 

Every Farmer Should Plan His Campaign — Every farmer 
should work out liis own farm scheme, map it out on paper 
where he can project it forward ten years or more under a defi- 
nite rotation system. 

Wlien the ten years are up, the record of yields for each year 
placed in ten annual farm maps will enable him to average the 
several crops and determine what each yielded to the acre. 




Binders in the field 

Before that time his state experiment station will probably 
have given him items of average cost so that he can calculate 
the average cost to the acre of each kind of grain grown and of 
each kind of crop fed to live stock. His neighbors also will 
have begun more of system and many of their figures will serve 
to guide his future operations. 

Let the farmer block out his farm cheme, submit it to 
farmer friends for criticism, and finally send copies to the pro- 
fessor of agriculture in his state agricultural college, who may 
be able to give advice as to kind of crops in the rotation; as to 
the plan of rotation; also as to the preparation and fertilization 
of the soil. 



Farm Management Developed as Science — The agricul- 
turalists of the state experiment stations and of the national 
Department of Agriculture are seriously taking up the matter 



36 FOB BETTER CBOPti 

of farm manag"ement, and as far as their time permits are ready 
to give advice. 

They need a specific, intelligent statement of the farmers' 
problem and his point of vievs^, that tliey may the better under- 
stand how to investigate farm management in all its manifold 
bearings. 

There have already begun to appear writings on farm reor- 
ganization and management from a number of men who ere 
long will be regarded as masters along this line of scientific 
instruction and advice. 

The experiment stations and the U. S. Department of Agri- 
culture have begun to accumulate a valuable body of knowledge 
along this line, and teachers are beginning to reduce to peda- 
gogic form a system of teaching farm management to be com- 
parable with teaching other lines of engineering and business 
organization. 

The Various Soils Best Suited to Cereals — The cereals 
are suited to a wide range of soils. On light sandy, leachy, or 
drouthy soils these crops usually make a crop of good quality 
but poor in quantity. 

The new durum wheat and kaffir corn are adapted to the 
drouthy regions of the semi-arid plains; durums well to the 
north, and kaffir from Nebraska southward in this "plains 
region." 

There are few soils too heavy or wet for the small cereals, 
and rice grows in soils kept flooded so much of the time that few 
weeds can encumber the soil. 

Like most crops, these grains are best suited by soils which 
are a happy medium in texture from being made up of coarse 
and fine'materials comljined, as where the great glacier, crucible- 
like, has left its mixture of sand and clay to the northward of 
the Ohio and Missouri rivers. 

Soils Adaptable to the Cereal Crops — As was stated earlier, 
these crops like to follow corn, potatoes, or other hoed crops, 
and the grasses, as on sods of timothy, clover, or timothy and 
clover sown together. 

The sod of the long-standing blue grass pasture, or of the 
long-established alfalfa meadow also suits these crops; though 
if the soil is naturally rich and the season unduly wet, tliese 
crops are liable to overgrow in stems and leaves on rich land, and 
falling down, or even continuing too late their mere vegetative 
growth, make grain of poor quality and not large in quantity. 

Flax is less liable to be overfed, while the varieties of oats as 
yet available for most localities are peculiarly liable to lodge and 
to be overdone with much plant food. 

Why the cereals do not yield nearly as well following cereals 
as after alternating crops mentioned, is not fully understood. 



FOR BETTER CROPS 37 

It is known that a specitic bacterial disease of flax gets in the 
soil and destroys the flax by tlie disease called flax wilt. 

Crops Believed to Leave Poison in Soil — It is believed 
that some of these crops leave in the soil substances which are 
toxic or poisonous to the same plants grown the next year, and 
that this is one of the reasons why the yield is so low when one 
of these crops follows itself, or even follows one of the other small 
grains instead of following corn, grass, or clover. 

It is observed by all that these crops allow weeds to ripen and 
the furrow slice to become full of weed seeds; especially if the 
stubble is allowed to stand unplowed for weeks after the grain 
has been harvested from over the weeds theretofore suppressed. 

Flax grown for seed is the worst sinner along this line, be- 
cause its leaves do not form a dense covering, allowing the weeds 
free growth, and because it is often so late in the ripening that 
many weeds have an opportunity to mature before the flax is 
harvested. 

Winter rye and winter wheat generally ripen before many of 
the annual weeds have had time to ripen; and oats, barley, buck- 
wheat, and millet often grow so dense and so rapidly that the 
weeds which start to grow are smothered out. 

Grain Stubble Should be Plowed at Once — It is very im- 
portant that grain stubble in which no grass seeds have been 
sown, be plowed or even disked, or better, plowed shallow at 
once after the grain is harvested. 

This prevents most of the weeds from ripening and the land 
can be plowed again later in the autumn, or if corn, potatoes, or 
other cultivated crop is to be planted tiiere, plowing may be done 
in the spring. This plan often serves well to provide a place into 
which the winter's crop of barnyard manure may be plowed 
under. 

In the south a crop of crimson clover sowed with the cereal 
and allowed to develop among the stubble maybe plowed under 
in the autumn or tlie next spring; or a crop of cow peas may be 
sown after the grain it iiarvested in June. Wherever the grain 
stubble can be plowed under early and a crop of peas or other 
leguminous crop, or even corn or other plant which produces 
much green matter can be grown and plowed under, adding 
fresh, active, vegetable matter, humus will be added to the soil. 

Feeding Legumes to Stock Best Plan — These leguminous 
crops are valuable as green manure on account of the nitrogen 
and the humus-making organic matter they contain. But where 
they can be harvested, fed to live stock; and half of these sub- 
stances can be returned to the soil as manure dropped in the 
field or carted from the barns, that is generally the best plan. 



38 FOR BETTER CROPS 

Where the crop is carted from the field, nearly half the nitro- 
gen and humus-making materials are left in the roots and in the 
bottoms of the stems and in the leaves and other portions of the 
plants not obtained in gathering the green forage or the field- 
dried fodder. 

The live stock secure sufficient toll from the crop to pay for 
more than the one-fourth of the total manurial value finally lost. 
Besides, feeding out a crop of forage makes live stock necessary, 
and there is another compensation in the grain which must be 
usually fed with the roughage, thus keeping also on the farm 
more of the manurial value of the grains raised on the farm or 
purchased. 

Live stock are great agencies for building up and conserving 
soil fertility. When "the pig roots off the mortgage," he has 
also rooted greater value into the soil saved from the money 
lender; and the cow has well-nigh usurped the "golden hoof of 
the sheep" in many states because "she ships out, in the form 
of golden butter, sunshine for dollars," leaving practically all the 
fertility contained in her food to be returned to the soil. 

Preparation of the Graiu Crops' Seed Bed — These grain 
crops are generally good feeders, but they want to feed near the 
surface as well as deeper down. They can send their water- 
finding roots four or even six feet deep, but they know that the 
richest part of the soil is the furrow slice and they want that in 
the best possible condition to feed in. In most climates they 
like to have the furrow slice a year old, so that its lower half 
has had a year in which to become compact and well-knit 
together. 

They like to have only the upper part of the furrow slice 
loose to easily take in falling fain and to serve as a dust blanket 
or dirt mulch to retard its wasting by evaporation from the sur- 
face of the ground. Fall-plowed land is as a rule, therefore, 
better than spring-plowed land. Corn and potato fields often 
leave the soil in excellent condition for these grains. This is 
true of fields in which the surface was stirred several times to 
the depth of two or three inclies the previous year. Thus the 
lower part of the furrow slice is allowed to become compact, its 
upper part is kept mellow and many weed seeds are brought into 
the sprouting zone, the resulting plants from which are at once 
destroyed. 

Gases of Advantage in Replo^ving in Spring — On very 
heavy lands far to the north, in rare cases it is best to replow the 
land in the spring to prevent its becoming too dense. 

In some climatic conditions in the dry plains regions, plowing 
in the spring gives better yield than fall plowing. There the 
evaporation into the dry atmosphere is so rapid, and the supply 
of soil moisture is so meager that the whole depth of the furrow 



FOR BETTER CHOPS 39 

slice is needed to retard the loss of evaporation of water from 
the surface of the ground. 

The plants can better give up having their roots in the lower 
half of the furrow slice and feed in the subsoil than do with less 
water. These soils are rich in plant food to great depth and the 
conservation of water instead of tiie conservation of plant food 
is the prime necessity. 

Seed Bed Should be Fine and Smooth — The immediate 
preparation of the seed bed should be such as to have it fine and 
smooth, that the seeds may be placed at a moderate depth, one 
to two inches for flax and millet, and one and one-half to three 
inches for the other grains. 

Under dry, late, warm conditions, the deeper depths should 
be approached and under cool, early, wet conditions, the shal- 
lower planting should be made. 




Shocking wheat 

The best time for seeding must be worked out for each local- 
ity. Sometimes unusual conditions control, as where it is neces- 
sary to plant winter wheat late in the autumn so that it may 
escape the Hessian fly. As a rule, spring wheat should be sown 
very early, oats a little later, barley still later, millet not till 
corn planting time, while flax and buckwheat have a wide range 
from the time danger of frost is well passed till in June. 

Planting at Uniform Depth in Moist Soil — The planting 
should be done in such manner that the seeds are placed at a 
uniform depth in moist soil from which they may at once absorb 
the necessary moisture to induce germination, and to provide a 
water contact between rootlets and soil particles through which 
plant food may at once go from soil into root and plant. 



40 FOB BETTER CBOBS 

There has been great nnprovement in machinery for seeding 
small grains. The hoe drill, and especially the disk drill and 
the shoe drill, place the seeds in the moist bottom of a freshly 
made furrow and allow the soil to at once fall back as a 
covering. 

Following with a Scotch harrow or other drag to complete 
the covering is often an aid to uniform germination and to care 
of plantlets in escaping from the seed bed. 

Conditions Determine Amount of Seed — The amount of 
seed varies greatly with the openness or closeness of texture of 
the soil, and its fertility; also with the temperature and rainfall, 
and with the earliness or lateness of planting. 

When conditions such as dense, moist, cool soil prevail for a 
long period, inducing the grains to stool well, less seed will be 
necessary. On the other hand, an open, drouthy, infertile soil, 
warm weather, and a short stooling season, will make necessary a 
larger amount of seed for a full stand of plants. 

Some of these conditions are in conflict, as the inability of a 
soil poor in fertility to support a heavy crop. 

The amount of seed best to use in each agricultural district 
for each crop, each kind of soil, and each time of seeding must 
be determined by formal experiments or by wide practical 
experience of farmers in that district. 

Since the farmer cannot predict with certainty what the 
weather is to be following a given date of seeding, he must take 
into consideration all other available facts and use his best judg- 
ment; not departing too widely from what is known to be the 
best average amount of seed to be used. 

Some General Rules as to Amount of Seed — About one- 
sixth less seed is needed when the drill is used to place the seeds 
at a uniform depth than when they are broadcast and placed at 
different depths by cultivating them in. Only the average 
extremes in amount of seed to sow are given here, because local 
requirements differ so widely. 

They may be stated as follows: Wheat, five to eight pecks; 
oats, eight to ten pecks; barley, seven to nine pecks; rye, seven 
to nine pecks; millet, two to three pecks; flax, for seed, two to 
three pecks; buckwheat, two to three pecks. 

As a rule little more can be done for the growing crop of 
closely drilled or broadcast grain than to pull out by hand large 
weeds or such weeds as wild mustard, the seeds of which ripen 
with the ripening grain and reseed the lield. 

In some foreign countries, women and children are employed 
to pull out the weeds and even to hoe between the narrow drill 
rows when the plants are several inches high. We are glad that 
our country has such high rates of wages that this is impractic- 
able; and that our farming is on a broad basis of machine 



FOR BETTER CROPS 41 

farming under which our farmers and farm laborers can get good 
and just remuneration for their work. 

Shocking an Art to be Taught by Example— Modern farm 
machinery has blocked out a rapid, easy, and effective way of 
handling the small grains. These crops are practically all bound 
in bundles by the self binder, and the bundles are bunched ready 
for the shocker, who is the only man who needs to touch the 
bundles with his hands. 

Shocking is an art that is easily taught by example, but not 
so easily described on paper. Different arrangements of the 
bundles suit different purposes. For wet grain, or for quick 
drying, that the grain may early go to the stack, barn, or thresh- 
ing machine, "two by two" shocks are often best. Sometimes 
these should be set closely, and under other conditions they 
should be set open so as to give to the air the freest possible 
circulation. 

A simple round shock is made by placing four bundles in the 
middle and then placing around them a circular row of com- 
pactly placed bundles, each slanting toward the center. These 
bundles should be firmly set on the ground, and unless rapid 
drying is needed, each successive bundle should be set compactly 
against its fellow so that the wind may not get a hold and tear 
the shock to pieces. Generally two bundles with both butts and 
heads broken over should be used to set into and lap over the 
shock so as to serve as shingles in shedding water, and so placed 
that they will withstand wind pressure. 

Fighting Dampness and Weevil from Grain — As American 
farmers accumulate wealth, they build great barns, if not suffi- 
cient for all their hay and unthreshed grain, at least to store the 
neat grain until such time as good prices or needs of the bank 
account warrant its being taken to market. Only where the 
newly threshed grain is damp, is there usually need of extra 
precautions in storing grain. Then some means of drying must 
be employed. Large barn floors on which the grain is spread and 
turned with shovels twice or oftener daily, to avoid heating, and 
to induce drying, is often the most available method. 

In rare cases grain weevils need to be fought. Then the 
bisulphide of carbon treatment can be effectively used, and your 
experiment station or your Uncle Sam's Agricultural Depart- 
ment will send a bulletin for the asking. 

It may be applied directly to the infested grain or seed with- 
out injury to its edible or germinative qualities by spraying or 
pouring, but the most effective manner of its application in 
moderately tight bins, or other receptacles, consists in evaporat- 
ing the liquid in shallow dishes or pans or on bits of cloth or 
cotton waste distributed about on the surface of the infested 
grain. 



42 



FOR BETTER CROPS 



Insects Killed by Evaporation of Liquid — The liquid rap 
idly volatilizes and being heavier than air, descends and perme- 
ates the mass of grain, killing all insects and other vermin 
present. 

The bisulphide is usually evaporated in vessels containing 
one-fourth or one-half pounds each, and is applied at the rate of 
a pound and a half to tiie ton of grain. In more open bins a 
larger quantity is used. For smaller masses of grain or other 
material an ounce is evaporated to every 100 pounds of infested 
matter. 

Tlie grain is generally subjected to the bisulphide treament 
for twenty-four hours, but may be exposed much longer without 
harmful results. Since this chemical is inflamiHable, all lights 
and matches should be kept away from it. 



fSf|.- 




i^m^lijkkhmi :Mt^M^^ 



Harvesting 'vrheat 



The time will surely come when grain will be sold for the 
cleaned grain, and then all the farmers will be induced to keep 
the weed seeds and other foreign matter to be fed to live stock 
on the farm where they were raised. 

During recent years great improvements have been made In 
grain cleaning machinery, both in the threshing separator and 
in the barn fanning mill. With one of the modern fanning or 
grading mills, which is both efficient and rapid, the grain can be 
re-cleaned before sale at no great cost of labor. As a matter of 
fact, many threshing separators in good hands put only clean 
grain into the farmers' granaries. 

The Most Profitable Marketing of Small Grains— It pays 

to market some small grains "on hoof;" that is, feed them to 
live stock ; but the larger part must go to feed the men and 
horses of the cities, and to make linseed oil and other non-food 
products. 



FOR BETTER CROPS 



43 



As a rule, farmers market their grains as soon as convenient 
after they are garnerfed, as most of the commercial crops of these 
grains are produced in the north temperate zone. This puts the 
bulk of these commodities on tlie market in our northern autumn 
and early winter. 

Since the purchasing agencies are better organized than the 
original sellers, the producers, it is believed that this tends to 
place the farmers under some disadvantage as to price. The 
ability to prognosticate prices has been successfully developed 
by comparatively few farmers, while many of those who make 
trade a business have developed a peculiar ability along this line. 

Scientific investigations are being made of the marketing of 
farm products ; and in some cases growers have met combina- 
tions of buyers with combinations of sellers. Tliis brings barter 




A modern binder in operation 

and sale to a more equal basis, often with only a single represen- 
tative, or better, with a committee, on either side. The deal is 
then on a broad basis and all the facts may be available to both 
sides. 



Effect of Reports and Organization — The development of 
government reports of crops, of stocks on hand and in transit, 
and of demand, and the organization of buyers and sellers offers 
a most interesting phase for study in our rural economics. 

The world is becoming more co-operative, even more sensibly 
socialistic, using that word in its true sense, than it has yet 
recognized. Farming is to be the one great industry where 
Individualism is conserved for the business and family life, and 
where only those things where co-operation is necessary and 
best, are given over as public or co-operative functions. 

Individualism under co-operative organization was made 



44 FOE BETTER OR OPS 

possible by our farmstead scheme, where "the farm business and 
the family form a unit" calculated for the best production of 
men and women. 

Progress in Breeding the Small Cereals — That the Ameri- 
can farmers are ere long to have varieties of grain wliich yield 
ten or even twenty-five per cent more than those now in use is 
certain. 

The introduction of the best old or newly bred varieties, 
varieties from foreign countries, and from state to state, and 
the improvement by breeding the varieties of each state suiting 
them to each and every agricultural district, are proved methods, 
capable of adding $1.00 to $3.00 per acre to the value of our 
100,000,000 acres of small cereals. 

These possible hundreds of millions of increased crops annu- 
ally, at a cost of much less than $10,000,000, is Anally interesting 
the national and state governments, as well as seed firms, also a 
larger number of private breeders of field crops. 

The introduction of durum or macaroni wlieats to the semi- 
arid lands of the great west has made possible tens of millions of 
added crop, and the cost has been very slight. These durum 
varieties are now serving as bases on which plant breeders at 
various experiment stations are building better varieties by the 
art of selective breeding, and by breeding by hybridization fol- 
lowed by selection. 

Notable Increase by Spring Wheat Breeding — Some of the 
spring wheats have already been bred so as to yield fifteen and 
eighteen per cent more grain on millions of acres upon whicii 
rapidly spreading varieties from the Minnesota experiment 
station are now grown. 

The United States Department of Agriculture is co-operating 
with a number of state experiment stations, and new selected 
and new hybrid pure-bred varieties of each of the small grains 
are being originated by the tens of thousands. 

On one experiment farm alone 2,000new hybrid winter wheats 
have been originated. It is believed that at least a few of these 
new sorts will be as hardy as rye, and will extend the winter 
wheat zone to the Manitoba boundary, thus greatly increasing 
the yield. 

Continuous Snow Makes Large Crops — When the winters 
are such that snow covers the ground during the winter season, 
winter wheats yield thirty to fifty per cent more than do spring 
varieties. The combined autumn and spring cool periods greatly 
extend the stool ing period, and besides, winter wheats, by ripen- 
ing earlier, escape much of the bad effectsof the hot, dry summer 
weather and much of the ravages of insects, and especially of 
wheat rust. 




45 



46 FUR BETTER CROPS I 

A new variety of flax, named Primost,or "Minnesota No. 25," 
has been supplied to tlie farmers under co-operative plant breed- 
ing worlc of the United States Department of Agriculture and 
the Minnesota experiment station, which yielded 15 busliels to 
the acre, as compared with 11.9 bushels of common flax grown 
under the same conditions. This gain of 3.1 bushels per acre or 
of 26 per cent is worth several dollars an acre. The breeding of 
this new variety did not cost more than one tliousand dollars. 

Other new varieties of each species of the small grains, which 
are now hicubating on various experiment farms, will rapidly 
come forward, and all farmers should be ready to buy as each new 
and thoroughly tested and authenticated variety is brought 
forward by these public institutions. 

Scientific Method of Breeding Cereals — Metliods of 
breeding tiie several kinds of cereal crops are being worked out 
in the most scientific and practicable manner and resulting 
therefrom, many new varieties, which add 10 to 25 per cent and 
even more to tlie yield of these crops, are coming forward for 
general distribution to farmers. 

The best varieties of a given grain are obtained by an experi- 
ment station and are tested in field plots as to their yields and 
the quality of grain. Those which are manufactured are also 
tested in the mill, and wheat and rye are tested in the labora- 
tory as to their bread makihg qualities. 

When field and laboratory tests show that a given variety 
has superiority in its power to produce values per acre, it is 
planted in the field preparatory to its serving as a basis for 
breeding. Often the best variety to serve as a basis for breed- 
ing is one already commonly grown. The plant breeder now 
selects from as many lieads, say 5000 seeds, and plants them in a 
short row. When the wheat is ripe, the plant breeder selects 
from these rows those stocks which show superiority, usually 
throwing away all but ten per cent of the whole. Grain to be 
planted the next year is harvested from each of those stocks 
reserved during the liead-to-row test. 

The next year three or more drill rows one rod long, or hill 
rows one rod long, or possibly rectangular plots are planted; or 
perchance, all three of these plot tests are used. A comparison 
of the plots Is made on the basis of both yield and quality of 
the grain. All of the least desirable stocks are discarded. 
Seeds are saved and similar plot tests are made the next year. 
Usually from this large number of mother plants a small number 
of exceedingly large yielding varieties are thus discovered. 

The five, ten, or more, most promising varieties are now taken 
to field tests, where they are grown in a field way, usually for 
three years, two or three duplicate plots being grown eacli year. 
Any variety which is outstanding in its promised value per 



FOR BETTER CROPS 47 

acre is at once taken to the fields and multiplied as rapidly as 
may be for its early distribution to growers. 

While increasing the seeds of tlie promising new variety it is 
also sent to other experiment stations and branch stations of 
the region where it. is likely to prove valuable, tliat it may 
there be tested also. By the time the variety has been increased 
to some tliousands of bushels for distribution to growers of 
pure bred seeds the general facts are known as to its yield at 
experiment stations of various regions, and if it be a wheat, its 
milling and baking qualities can also have been determined 
on a practical scale. 

Class of Pure-Bred Seed Growers Needed— For rapidly 
distributing the many valuable new forthcoming varieties of 
field crops, tliat they may quickly replace poorer kinds, and that 
they may be kept pure from diseases and clean of weed seeds, 
tliere needs to be developed a class of pure-bred seed growers, as 
we have now growers of pure-bred live stock. 

In some states the experiment stations select the men to 
whom they will sell at a good price their valuable new creations, 
that every county and every neighborhood may have the seeds 
grown for them near home and at a fair, though profitable price. 

In some cases these growers of pure-bred seeds liave formed 
state seed growers' associations. This plan of distribution of 
new varieties helps to give to growers of valuable seeds that 
added profit, and induces them carefully to produce and market 
the needed large amounts of each valuable new kind of seeds, so 
that all will grow them instead of the old-fashioned, poor yield- 
ing kinds. It is both an honor and a profit to be a grower of 
pure-bred seeds, and this plan is profitable to the mass of farmers 
who need tlie good seeds. 

American grain growing is looking up because it is fast be- 
coming a part of general farming, because the fields are becoming 
better prepared for grain, and because science is making vast 
improvements in machinery, in methods of cultivation, and in 
transportation, and, especially, in the inherited power of the 
varieties of grain themselves. 



^ ^ 



The Corn Crop 



By p. G. Holden 

Vice Dean and Professor of Agronomy, Iowa Agricultural College, Ames, Iowa 



"More corn of better quality on every 
acre of ground" is the motto of every 
corn-grower in Iowa. Let us each strive 
4^, .(?^HI ^'^ grow more and better corn this year 

^- ,-^^P than we did last. This is the secret of 

^rf^ ilifh r success. This will make us love our work. 

JHHHF Drudgery is work without thought, with- 

^HKm , out interest, without love for it. "Tlie 

man who can make two ears of corn, or 
two blades of grass, grow on the spot 
where only one grew before, would de- 
serve better of mankind and render more 
essential service to the country than the whole race of politicians 
put together." 

The average yield of corn in the United States today is about 
25 bushels per acre. It can be increased to 30, then to 35, and 
ultimately to 50. 

To produce a good crop of corn we must have good land, good 
seed, good preparation of the ground and care of the crop, a good 
season, and last but by no means least, a good man. Important 
as these things are, I must omit from this short discussion all 
of them except the question of good seed. 

If I owned the farms of the United States and could give but 
four orders regarding corn, those orders would be as follows : 

1. That every ear of corn intended for planting be tested, 
that is, not less than six kernels (better ten) be taken from each 
ear and sprouted and all weak and bad ears discarded. 

2. That every ear intended for planting be harvested before 
the fall freezes, and properly preserved. 

3. That the corn be graded and the planter tested and made 
ready to drop the proper number of kernels. 

4. That the corn be improved by selecting, for the average 
farm, say, 100 of the best ears and planting them on one side of 
the corn field. The seed for the following crop to be selected in 
the fall from the part of the field where the best seed was 
planted. 

Notice that all of these are things which can be done by every 
one ; that they cost practically nothing except a little time and 

48 



FOR BETTER CROPS 



49 



work ; that no loss can possibly come to any one from properly 
testing-, harvesting, grading, and improving his seed. 

It is difficult for us to comprehend the enormous wealth 
which would be added to the United States if these four orders 
were carried out by every farmer; and let me again add that 




A champion ear of corn 

they can be carried out by every one and at practically no 
increased expense. 

To illustrate : I presume that there is hardly a person in 
Iowa but will agree with me that if every ear of seed corn 
had been tested this spring before planting and the weak and 
bad ears discarded so that nothing but strong seed was planted, 
it would have added on tlie average not less than 10 bushels per 
acre to the crop. In one average county of Iowa with 90,000 
acres planted to corn annually, there would be an increase of 




Plate No. 1 

From each of the remaining ears remove 2 or 3 kernels. Examine 
these kernels and discard those ears M'hich have poor kernels and 
thus save the ^vork of testing ears 'tvhich sho'w from appearance that 
they are not fit to plant. 



900,000 bushels worth $450,000. But there are 99 counties, each 
growing an average of 90,000 acres of corn. 

It is true that the seed this year was much worse than usual 
owing to the sappy condition of the corn last fall, the early 
freezes, and the unusually severe winter weather; but I am per- 
fectly safe in saying that the annual average yield for Iowa coulc? 



50 FOR BETTER CROPS 

be increased 10 bushels above the present if the four orders 
given above were carried out on every farm. 

Testing Every Ear of Corn — There are two fundamental 
reasons for testing- each ear. 

1. It enables us to discard those ears which have been weak- 
ened or killed by freezing, mould, or premature sprouting in 
the fall. 

2. It enables us to discover the scrubs or runts and discard 
them. Let me here caution you against the delusion which 
some men have that they can tell whether or not corn will grow 
by just looking at it or knifing it. 

How to Make the Test — Lay out the seed ears side by side 
on tables or planks arranged for the purpose. Go over these 



■ 




B 




^^^BKsH 




I^^Bi i % 


f f f ^IR^^^MIHII^^H 


^^^^^MiSni 




Hir* ^ 


I Imiwm^X i^HHU^^HranH^H 


^^BRriiiiB 






Hnl 






-M£?*'t^^^K^^BBmSStiK^m 


H|||ll 




^K^Z^ 








HH| 


Hn ^^^H^^^^HHBh^^^^^^HI^H 


W 




1 


Ws^t^^^^^^BI^^^^BBt 



Plate No. 2 

Putting the kernels in the germination box from ear No. 1 in square 
No. 1. From ear No. 3 in square No. 2, and so on. 

carefully and discard the poorer ears From each of the remain- 
ing ears remove two or three kernels with a pocket knife, 
placing them at the butt or tip of their respective ears. From 
a study of these kernels you will be able to discard many more 
ears, some or all of whose kernels are mouldy, frozen, barren, 
immature, or are too shallow or too deep, too wide or too narrow, 
or whose germs are small, indicating poor feeding value, weak 
constitution, etc. 

The remaining ears should now be arranged on the planks 
side by side for the final germination test. Remove not less than 
six, better ten kernels, from each ear and place them in the 
germination box to sprout. The places or squares for the 
kernels in the box should be numbered to correspond to the 
number of the ear from which the kernels were taken. This 
will enable us to discard those ears whose kernels in the box fail 
to grow or show only weak sprouts. Think for a moment what 



FOR BETTER CROPS 



51 



it means to use one bad ear for seed: 900 missing places, equal 
to 300 hills, — on an acre, not less than 4 bushels of corn. It 
means wasted land and wasted labor. Then, too, the weak and 
sickly sprouts will betrdy many otiier ears which are really 
scrubs and can be discarded, ears which yield 10, 20, and some- 
times 30 bushels less per acre than others. 

It is certain tliatnot less than 35,000 farmers tested every ear 
of seed they planted this spring in Iowa. Every farmer wlio 
grows corn, whether he lives in the north or south, in the east 
or west, should test each ear to be planted. It is proverbial that 
a "runt pig" is always a "runt pig." In the struggle for exist- 
ence he is at a disadvantage at every turn. He is crowded from 
his comfortable sleeping place and rooted out of the feed trough. 
So it is with the 800 or 900 weaklings from an ear. They are in 
reality runts, scattered there and here throughout the field, and 




Ten champion ears of corn 



robbed of plant food, moisture, and light, by their more vigorous 
growing brothers. 

Often they are barren; i. e., produce no ears, but these stalks 
do produce tassels with millions of pollen grains which drift over 
the field and fertilize the ears of the good stalks. In other words, 
these barren stalks become the fathers of millions of kernels of 
corn in the field, thus perpetuating their weakness. Kemember 
that you cannot injure the seed by testing it. You cannot pos- 
sibly lose. It costs nothing but a little time and labor. This 
work can and should be done in the winter before the spring 
work opens up. In this way none of the other farm work is 
neglected. 

How to Make the Germination Box — One of the simplest 
and best methods for testing each ear of corn is by the use of 
what is known as the sawdust germination box. 

Make a box 3 inches deep and 30 x 30 inches in size; fill it 
about half full with moistsawdust and tamp firmly withabrick. 



52 



FOR BETTER CROPS 



Rule off a piece of good white cloth (sheeting) into squares 
2i X 2i inches each way, checker board fashion, and number the 
squares 1, 2, 3, etc. Place this clotii, which should be the size 
of the germination box, on the sawdust and tack it to the sides 
and ends of the box. Lay the ears of corn to be tested side by 
side on the floor or table. Remove six kernels from six different 
places in ear No. 1 and place them in square No. 1 in the germi- 
nation box germ side up and crown pointing from you. Then 
remove six kernels in a like manner from ear No. 2 and place in 
square No. 2 in the germination box, and so on. When the 
squares in tlie germination box are all filled, lay a piece of good 
cloth over the kernels and dampen by sprinkling water over it. 
Place over this, a cloth considerably larger than the box and fill 




Plate No. 3 



the box with moist sawdust, tamp with a brick or board or tread 
on it with your feet until firmly packed on top of the corn. 
Keep the box in a place where it will not freeze; raise the upper 
side of the box or the side toward which the crowns of the 
kernels point, 3 or 4 inches; the stem sprouts will then grow up 
and the root sprouts down, thus making it much easier to read 
the test. It requires about eight days for the corn to germinate. 
At the end of that time roll back and remove the cloth contain- 
ing the top layer of sawdust. Now remove the second cloth as 
carefully as possible and examine the six sprouted kernels in 
each square. 

Tlie above box when completed and set away for germination 
may be described briefly as follows: Two inches of sawdust 
packed firmly in the bottom of the box. On tiiis is laid the 



FOR BETTER CROPS 



53 



cloth ruled off in squares, then the kernels laid in the squares, 
a second cloth spread on the kernels and dampened, then a 
third cloth much larger than the box, on which is placed 2 inches 
more of damp sawdust packed firmly. The edges of the larger 
cloth may be folded over on the top of the sawdust. 

Important Things io be Remembered — Soak the sawdust 
at least 2 hours — better, over night. 

Use a good quality of sheeting for the cloth that is ruled off 
in squares and also for the cloth covering the kernels. 

Do not use a cheap, porous grade of cloth, as the sprouts will 
grow through it and greatly interfere with the work. 

Leave a 2-inch margin around the edges of the box to prevent 
freezing and drying out. 

Make the squares to receive the kernels 2^x2^ inches. 

Never use the box more than once without thoroughly scald- 
ing both the sawdust and the cloths. 




Plate No. 4 



To insure accurate reading, the stem sprouts should be at 
least two inches long when examined. 

Throw out all ears which show weak germination as well as 
ears whose kernels fail to grow. 

Do not guess that an ear of corn will grow and grow strong. 
Test it, and find out before you have wasted upon it a whole year 
of labor and the use of your land. 

Test six kernels from each ear and discard the bad and the 
weak ears. 

Ears 3, 5, 8, and 10 are strong. 

Ears 1, 4, 7, and 12 are only fair. 

Ears 2, 6, 9, and 11 should be discarded. 

Is there anything more foolish than to guess that 800 or 900 
kernels on ears like 2, 6, 11, etc., are all right, when we can find 
out at practically no expense ? 

You say that your field was infected with cut worms, grubs, 
etc. How much more need then of strong seed that you may 
have something left Tor yourself after feeding the worms. You 



54 FOR BETTER CROPS 

say that the spring is cold and backward and that this accounts 
for your poor stand of corn. All the more need then of strong 
seed. Tens of thousands of fanners in Iowa this year have good 
stands of corn, while there are tens of thousands of their neigh- 
bors witli poor stands, and tens of thousands of others who are 
replanting, which is always most discouraging and most disap- 
pointing in results. 

You say that your ground is poor and foul; that the season 
was too wet, or too dry, and tlie care of the crop bad. You 
know as well as I do that strong, vigorous plants will stand 
these unfavorable conditions better than poor, weak ones. If 
your land is rich, well prepared, and the season good, how 
absolutely foolish it is to go out to this field and plant it with 
poor seed, much of which fails to grow or gives only weak stalks. 

The time is past for guessing that the 900 kernels on an ear 
are strong. We must know before the year's labor is put upon 
them. 











jMyHMiBifiFHnnriiii *\'" *> n '^'^^^wHnr^ 




^L 


n 




«B*^ 




-Vt 










t>-'^3:--:^. ^ -ti...-.:'^ :. ,. 






,.- ^^■-■"^ 



The corn binder operatinti in heavy corn 

During the past seven years more than 10,000 fields of grow- 
ing corn have been examined. In no year has the average 
exceeded 72 per cent, of a perfect stand. It has been as low as 
64 per cent. The average has been 67 or 68 per cent of a stand. 
In other words, the average corn grower spends three hours of 
every day that he works in the corn field traveling over plowed 
ground that produces nothing. 

There are many causes which contribute to a poor stand of 
corn, yet every one who has given the question much attention 
will agree with me that poor seed is by far the greatest cause of 
the poor stand. 

Better Care of Seed Corn — We must take better care of 
our seed corn. We must harvest it in the fall before the severe 
freezes. In Iowa and the north half of Illinois the last ten 
days in September will be about right. It should be hung up, 



FOR BETTER CROPS 55 

not piled up. It is circulation of air that is needed and not 
heat. Especially is this true during tlie first two weeks after 
the seed is harvested, while it is still sappy. There is no place 
better than an up-stairs room or attic, where the windows can 
be left open until the seed is dry. Again I will repeat, hang it 
up, don't pile it up. 

Plant the 100 Best Ears Together — One hundred or SO of 
the very best ears should be selected in the spring when we are 
testing our seed, shelled, and mixed together. This best seed 
which comes from the finest ears should be planted on one side 
of the corn field. Next fall from this seven or eight acres should 
be selected the seed for the following crop. Is there any good 
reason why any of us should fail to do this? We all recognize 
the great law that "like tends to produce like." In planting 
the field it takes no longer to put this best seed in our planter 
and plant it out first. 




Alfalfa Culture in America 



EARLY HISTORY — DISTRIBUTION AlTD ADAPTATION 
^PROFITABLENESS OF ALFALFA 



By Joseph E. Wing 

Expert Agriculturist, Meohanicsburg, Ohio 




WHERE it Came From — So many 
cen turies ago that history does not re- 
cord, the alfalfa plant was adopted into 
the family of mankind. It was grown 
long before the days of the Romans, and 
fed to the saddle horses of the desert. 
It was inesteem during Roman times, 
and old Roman books on agriculture tell 
how to so wit and how to till it and how 
to nourish it; and how, when it is grown, 
it "is good for all manner of famished 
beasts whatever." Doubtless the 
chariot horses that Ben Ilur drove were fed on alfalfa hay. 
From that day to this it has been a plant held in liigh esteem 
wherever the best agriculture has been practiced, especially in 
dry and warm climates where irrigation is practiced. 

Introduction into America — The introduction of alfalfa into 
America proceeded from two sources. The English settlers in 
Virginia and the Atlantic colonists brought it with them, and 
at one time many years ago it was in repute, under the name of 
"lucerne," in New York, parts of New England, and Virginia. 
It was recognized as having remarkable value, yet as acting 
strangely under cultivation, responding finely for one man, refus- 
ing to grow for another; growing beautifully in one field, refusing 
to grow in an adjacent one. It failed to make much seed, and 
eventually its culture died out almost entirely in the Atlantic 
region. 

Introduction to the Pacific Coast Region — The Spanish 
people brought alfalfa to Chili, Mexico, Peru, and in a small way 
to southern California. It thrived in the dry, warm valleys, in 
soils rich in mineral elements and well watered by irrigation. 
Its influence was unfelt in the United States until the settle- 
ment of California. The earlier settler sought only gold, but 
soon there appeared another class who sought by tillage of tl:ie 
soil to gain wealth by feeding the gold hunters. Thus there 
grew up a sort of pioneer farming in California. One of the 

56 




57 



58 FOR BETTER CROPS 

earlier stockmen there, Henry Miller, killed cattle in San Fran- 
cisco. In order to liave always at hand a supply of available 
beef steaks, he bought land in the San Joaquin valley, and tried 
to grow forage crops there. In 1873 he began to make serious 
attempts to grow alfalfa, importing the seed from Chili. It was 
a plant that many voyagers from eastern America had noticed 
growing luxuriantly on the plains of South America. Henry 
Miller succeeded in making his alfalfa grow. He fed it to cattle, 
and with the profits bought more land to sow more alfalfa. 
When the writer some years ago visited the ranches of Lux and 
Miller, he found feeding there on green alfalfa, more than a hun- 
dred thousand .cattle, with very many sheep. Thus had the 
alfalfa plant heaped up wealth for these far sighted ranchers! 
Doubtless there were other men experimenting with alfalfa 
growing in California as early as this or periiaps earlier, but 
Henry Miller is perhaps the first man to exploit the plant on a 
large scale. 

From California the plant spread eastward to Utah, to Colo- 
rado, to Idaho and Montana, to Kansas, Nebraska, and, later, to 
Ohio, Illinois, Indiana, Wisconsin, and New York; and now in 
these blessed days of prosperity it has gone to nearly every 
state in the Union, is grown in Alberta, Canada, and many of 
the islands of the sea. 

Alfalfa Growing in its Infancy — And yet, with all its 
spread, alfalfa growing has only just begun in the eastern states. 
One farmer in ten in favored regions is growing it, and he is 
growing only half or maybe a tenth of what he will some day. 
The other nine farmers will learn — they must — or else be 
crowded out by their more favored competitors. It was held for 
a long time that alfalfa growing must be confined to certain 
climatic belts. Now it is known that it thrives, so far as climate 
is concerned, almost equally well from the Atlantic to the Pacific, 
from the Lakes to the Gulf. Certainly, it gives more crops in 
warm climates where it has a longer growing season, but any 
part of America, saving the high mountain plateaus, is warm 
enough for two crops a year. 

Later, it was thought that only certain soils would grow 
alfalfa. Now it is known that, while it prefers rich, loose lime- 
stone soils, it will grow luxuriantly on strong, stiff, limestone 
clays, once they are made dry with tiles and fed with manure. 
It grows on sand, wlien the sand is made rich. It grows away 
from limestone, when the land has been sweetened with lime. 
In truth there is hardly a type of soils in the Union that is not 
now growing alfalfa, under enthusiastic culturists, who persist 
in giving tlie conditions that it needs and deserves. 

Easily the queen of all clovers, and of all the plants of the 
meadow, is alfalfa. It is the liardiest of them all, the most 




69 



60 



FOR BETTER CROPS 



lasting, the most productive, the most efficient soil enricher. It 
is the most beautiful, and it yields hay of the highest quality. 

Alfalfa is not new to the United States, but only within 
recent years has its culture been well understood, and a few 
essentials of its success been learned. It revels in dry land made 
sweet with lime (where this is needed), and rich with manures. 
Alfalfa is the most energetic soil enricher of all the clovers, but 
it must find fertile soil on which to begin, and cannot, like sweet 
clover, begin on wornout lands. Once it is well established, 
however, its ability to build up the field on which it stands, and 
the adjoining fields (from the manure made by feeding the hay), 
is nothing less than marvelous. 

The New Jersey experiment station has shown that the yield 
of an acre of good alfalfa contains fertilizing ingredients that 
in the shape of commercial fertilizers would cost on the market 




Harvesting alfalfa 



at least $65.00. So it can readily be seen that once alfalfa is 
established on a farm, and the hay fed thereon, and the manure 
saved, that farm must very rapidly increase in productiveness. 
Alfalfa is a perennial, enduring on well drained soil from five 
to fifty years with one sowing. It may be cut from three to five 
times a year, and will yield, in the regions of the corn-belt, from 
three to six tons of hay per acre. The composition of alfalfa 
hay is such that it has almost the same nutritive value as wheat 
bran, and may be substituted for wheat bran in the ration of 
clover with good results. As a feed for all classes of live stock 
it is unexcelled. Every animal upon the farm loves alfalfa, and 
thrives upon it. As a pasture plant it has no equal in the 
amount of gain upon animals that may be made from an acre of 
it, as much as 600 pounds of pork per acre being frequently 
reported where hogs have grazed it. It is also the best horse 



FOR BETTER CROPS 61 

pasture known, and is sometimes used as a pasture for sheep and 
cows, although one must observe due care in de-pasturing it 
with these animals since they may bloat. 

As a soiling crop alfalfa easily heads the list. It yields the 
most herbage and of the highest quality, and indeed, it is much 
better for the meadow, and usually for the animals, to feed it 
off by soiling rather than by de-pasturing. 

Alfalfa Seeding — Much needless mystery has been made of 
the alfalfa seeding question. So much mystery, in fact, that many 
farmers are afraid to try it at all. Jones recommends one method 
and Smith another; and how is the farmer to tell which is right? 
We began the study of the alfalfa question twenty-five years ago, 
and since that time we have carefully watched fields of it in 
almost every state in the Union. We have corresponded with 
thousands of successful growers, and with thousands of otlier 
growers who were having troubles, and we really believe now 
that we are able to furnish reliable data as to just what it is 
necessary to do in order to succeed with this plant. 

We could almost sura the matter up in four words: Lime, 
drainage, humus, and inoculation. Perhaps we have given these 
in order of their relative importance. Lime is necessary on soils 
not naturally of limestone formation or filled with limestone 
pebbles. The importance of this Is impressed upon us more and 
more each year; in fact, we believe today, that there have been 
more failures throughout the United States on account of 
insufficient lime in the soil than from any other cause. 

Then as to drainage; there is no use in planting alfalfa on 
any soil wliere water may ordinarily be found at a depth of less 
than three feet. The alfalfa may grow all right until its roots 
strike this water, but then it will probably die. 

Fertile soil contains enough liumus. Impoverished soils may 
be so deficient that special preparation must be made before 
alfalfa can possibly succeed. Stable manure, where obtainable, 
is the very best thing for adding the proper humus to the soil ; 
and we would urge its liberal use wherever possible. It might.be 
best to use this a year in advance of sowing alfalfa, and follow 
with clean cultivation to overcome what weeds might be sown 
with the manure, or, a good way is to top-dress the alfalfa during 
its first winter, using a manure spreader and applying the 
manure evenly without large chunks that might smother the 
young plants. On impoverished soils, we would recommend 
preparation for alfalfa one or two years in advance, growing such 
crops as crimson clover, mammoth clover, cow peas, Canada 
field peas, or soja beans, and preferably turning them under or 
else pasturing them off, so as to give the soil the greatest benefit 
possible from them. 

We recommend inoculation, not that it is always necessary, 



62 FOR BETTER CROPS 

but it is an inexpensive process, and in five cases out of six it 
will actually pay. This subject is fully discussed later on. 

Having determined that our soil is sweet, well drained, and 
sufficiently supplied with humus, theonly questions that remain 
are : The preparation of a good seed-bed; sowing at tlie proper 
time of year; and the use of good seed. For the seed-bed, it is 
essential that the ground be carefully fitted. It must be plowed, 
unless it is old ground, sucli as corn stubble, which may be 
thoroughly disked instead of plowing. It is better to firm the 
subsoil a little, so that only the surface is really loose. This, 
because if the entire soil is very loose, the seed may be planted 
too deep, and also because the alfalfa seems to prefer the sub- 
surface being a trifle firmed. 

Time of Seeding — On Woodland Farm, for many years it 
has been our custom to sow alfalfa at oat-seeding time, about 
the first week in April, using beardless spring barley as a nurse 
crop. The barley is usually cut for hay the last of June, and 
after this we sometimes secure a good cutting of alfalfa hay the 
first season, although we do not count on this, and are not dis- 
appointed if we do not obtain it. We sow about three to five 
pecks barley to the acre — on real rich ground not more than one 
bushel — and eighteen to twenty pounds of alfalfa seed at the 
same time, usually using a disk drill and throwing the alfalfa 
seed in front of the drill, unless the ground is very loose, in 
which case we throw the seed farther back to prevent its being 
covered too deeply. The alfalfa seed should be_covered about an 
inch. The advantages of this system are that the rains usually 
come about the right time for the young alfalfa, which makes a 
strong growth throughout tlie entire season, generally giving us 
with the barley enough hay the first year to pay the expenses of 
planting, and goes into winter into vigorous shape with about 
ten inches or a foot of stalk standing, enough to hold the snow 
throughout the winter and induce a fine, vigorous start in the 
spring. We find barley to be the best nurse crop obtainable. 
It .takes the place of the weeds that would otherwise come, 
gives us some very excellent feed, and with us, does the alfalfa 
good and no injury. Oats are not so good, because they shade 
tlie ground more and are much more inclined to lodge. We find 
that the barley hay with the small amount of alfalfa we obtain 
with it makes a forage second only to the pure alfalfa itself. We 
cut this wlien the barley is in the milk or dough stage. It is 
not always necessary to cut the barley for hay, as it ripens its 
grain about July 12th in this latitude, and it is rarely that 
alfalfa is suffering much by that time. Many of our neighbors 
cut their barley for grain, and still secure admirable stands of 
alfalfa. Where no nurse crop is used, it is seldom safe to plant 
alfalfa before the 20th of June, because the weeds will almost 



FOR BETTER CROPS 63 

certainly choke the young plants, and no amount of mowing 
will prevent their doing so. 

Many of our customers prefer seeding during the summer 
months, and tliis is certainly a very excellent way, frequently 
succeeding as well as our own, although sometimes failing on 
account of summer drouglit preventing tlie young plants from 
obtaining sufficient growth to go through their first winter. 
Many farmers become prejudiced against the early spring seeding, 
owing to their using oats as a nurse crop, but if they would use 
the beardless barley, they would doubtless be well pleased with 
the earlier sowing. 

For summer seeding we recommend as a good method having 
the alfalfa follow a crop of early potatoes, or it may be possible 
to plow wheat stubble early enough to secure a stand before 
winter. An excellent way is to plow tiie ground early in the 
spring, harrow it as frequently as the weeds appear, and sow the 
alfalfa during July. If the rains come right, such alfalfa should 
make excellent growth before winter and be certain to succeed. 
We really believe that where beardless spring barley may be 
used as a nurse crop, the early spring seeding is advisable in the 
states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, New York, and much 
of Pennsylvania. The late seeding is certainly preferable in 
some of the New England states, in Virginia, and the states 
south of the Oiiio river. The reason for the late seeding in tliese 
states is that their climate seems to be such that the alfalfa 
thrives better when sown late than when sown early, and also in 
part of these places quack or crab grass and other weeds will 
give so much trouble that the early seeding is almost sure to 
fail on account of them. The farther south one goes, the later 
is it safe to seed alfalfa. We have many customers in Georgia, 
Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas, who seed as late as 
November 1st, but their winters are so mild that the alfalfa 
never winter-kills, and it comes on the next spring in just as 
good shape as if it had been sown earlier in the season. 

Fertilizers — We find that on nearly all soils, phosphate does 
alfalfa more good than any other fertilizer. We recommend 
basic slag on soils that are acid, and where you do not wish to 
sow lime or untreated phosphate rock on limestone soils that are 
not acid. For the quickest and best results on these limestone 
soils, use one hundred pounds acid phosphate and nine hundred 
pounds untreated phosphate rock per acre. The untreated 
phosphate will absorb acid from the acid phosphate, and the 
combination will bring the quickest results of any form of 
phosphate which can be applied. Also, applied in tiiis way, the 
superfluous acidity being taken up by the raw phosphate, there 
will be no danger of making your land sour. Good barnyard 
manure as a fertilizer for alfalfa cannot be beaten; it should, 



64 FOB BETTER GBOPS 

however, go hand in hand with the phosphate; neither is complete 
without tlie otlier. They should be applied at tiie same time for 
best results. 

Seed — Good seed is of great importance. Alfalfa seed coming 
from Arizona, South America, or Arabia, will grow all right the 
first year, and then will probably winter-kill the first winter, 
especially in any of the northern states. We find that the very 
best seed in the world, that which is freest from dangerous 
weeds and wliich possesses the greatest vitality, is produced in 
our own United States, particularly in the nortliwestern part. 
Also it is better if grown on non-irrigated soil. 

In some of the far southern states, an enemy constantly to 
be fought is the Johnson grass. In some of these states alfalfa 
seed is produced, and is very likely to be mixed with this pest. 

We guarantee our seed absolutely free from this Johnson 
grass, and growers in any country who are troubled with it, may 
with perfect confidence purchase our seed. 

Alfalfa for the Poultryman — The poultryman will find 
great profit from having a run of alfalfa. This should not be too 
small a space, but large enough so that the poultry can forage at 
will without injuring the plants, and so that he may cut the hay 
regularly and save it for winter feeding. Poultry thrive upon a 
diet composed chiefly of alfalfa, with some grain in addition. 

Alfalfa for the Dairyman — No other food forms so good a 
basis for the ration of a dairy cow as alfalfa, the reason being 
its extreme richness in protein, and its easy digestibility, and 
the additional reason that the cows love it so, and eat it so 
greedily. Alfalfa growing countries have a great advantage 
over other countries in the dairy business, so that it is well for 
the dairyman, wherever he is situated, to begin to consider liow 
he may make his own soil an alfalfa-growing soil. It has been 
found tliat the cost of milk production can be cut square in two 
by the use of home-grown alfalfa. A ton of alfalfa liay, early 
cut and nicely cured, as food for the dairy cow is worth as much, 
pound for pound, as the best wheat bran. In order to get its 
full feeding value, it should be ground. Even ordinary alfalfa 
hay is worth nearly as much as wheat bran; so that it is clear to 
the eastern dairyman, who must pay $25. 00 a ton for wheat bran, 
a field of alfalfa yielding no more than three or four tons per 
acre is a veritable gold mine. Governor Hoard lias found that 
with alfalfa in the dairy ration, it is necessary to use only about 
half the amount of grain that must be fed when other forage is 
provided. In truth, with alfalfa hay and corn silage, little or 
no feed is needed to keep the dairy cow in the most profitable 
producing condition. We thus emphasize the importance of 
alfalfa to the dairyman, because among the many thousands of 




65 



66 FOR BETTER CROPS 

eastern dairymen, the margin between cost of production and 
selling price of their products is so small that they are in a 
rather discouraging condition, and this condition, alfalfa will 
relieve better and easier than any other thing. There was a 
time, only a few years ago, when it would have seemed not 
worth while thus to attempt to raise tlie hopes of the dairyman, 
for then it had not been demonstrated that alfalfa could be 
grown away from the "alfalfa belt." But since tlien we have 
learned the few simple requirements of the alfalfa plant, and 
we do not hesitate to affirm that we can grow alfalfa anywhere, 
upon any farm in the United States not at too high an altitude, 
if the few simple but essential conditions are complied with. 

Time to Cut Alfalfa — We usually cut it when about one- 
iifth of the plants begin to show bloom. A somewliat better 
way of ascertaining the proper time is to watcli for the buds at 
the base of the plants and cut when tliey appear above the 
ground. These buds are the beginning of new stalks, and their 
appearance indicates that the plant is ready to make another 
crop. 

Alfalfa as a Pasture Crop — It is especially adapted to being 
de-pastured by horses and hogs, and perliaps the greatest profit 
comes from such use. The practical difficulty with de-pastur- 
ing alfalfa with siieep and cows is, that being a clover, it some- 
times causes bloat, similar to clover bloat. The best preventive 
of bloat is to have the alfalfa mixed witli grasses in the pasture. 
When this is done, the animals eating the two together are very 
much less apt to bloat. The best grass to mix with alfalfa for 
pasture is brome grass {bromus inermis.) 

In pasturing alfalfa, to get the best results, one should not turn 
stock on it before the plants have grown nearly to the blossoming 
stage; furthermore, the pasture should be so large that the 
animals will not eat it down close. It should be mown at least 
twice during the season and made into hay. It will not do, how- 
ever, to pasture the field with sheep or cattle immediately after 
it has been mown, this being the surest known method of invit- 
ing disaster. After alfalfa is mown, it is not safe to turn stock 
onto it until the plants have reached the woody stage. Thus 
treated, alfalfa pastures will last for years, and afford an 
astonishing amount of nourishment. 

All stock should be taken off of alfalfa pastures by the first 
of October, or, in the eastern states, at the beginning of hard 
frosts; this, both for the good of the alfalfa and for the good of 
the animals themselves. It is dangerous to de-pasture frozen 
alfalfa, and it is not even wise to cut it for hay. A profitable 
scheme sometimes practiced, is to break an old blue grass pas- 
ture, plow it rather deep, fertilize it well, and seed it down to 
alfalfa. A good stand of alfalfa is almost assured by this method, 



FOR BETTER CROPS 67 

and while the blue grass comes up immediately and fills in be- 
tween the alfalfa plants; within a few years, the amount of com- 
bined lierbage yielded by this practice is almost incredibly great, 
the grass itself yielding more than it did before the alfalfa was 
sown upon it. Alfalfa thus sown will not last as long as when 
the grass is absent, but while it is there, it is extremely profitable. 
In any of the states east of the Missouri, we think that 
farmers who pasture alfalfa with cattle and sheep may be 
reasonably sure to have some losses, no matter how careful they 
are. We liave never succeeded in pasturing it ourselves without 
some losses, but we believe it is sometimes more profitable to 
pasture alfalfa and lose a few sheep or perhaps a steer, than it is 
to handle our stock on other feed without this loss. 

Alfalfa Turning Yellow — This may be caused either by a 
leaf spot or rust, or it may indicate that conditions are not 
right with the plant, that it needs lime, drainage, or Inoculation. 
Mowing will usually check the rust; the other troubles are fully 
discussed later on. 

Inoculation — All legumes have tiny bacteria that work on 
their roots, forming "nodules." These bacteria draw nitrogen 
from the air, and both supply the plants with it and also add it 
directly to the soil. Without these bacteria the legumes will 
soon perish, although most of the legumes seem to find their 
proper bacteria in almost any soil. Alfalfa is an exception, and 
it nearly always pays to supply its bacteria artificially. This 
may be done very inexpensively. Obtain soil from some near-by 
alfalfa field and apply it at the rate of one liundred pounds per 
acre, sowing it late in the afternoon and harrowing it In 
immediately before allowing the sun to strike it. This is the 
best way to inoculate. Soil from around the sweet clover or 
melilotus roots answers equally well. The government will 
furnish inoculation of another sort free; this usually succeeds, 
but not always. Another excellent way is to sow a few pounds 
of alfalfa seed with your red clover. After the clover is plowed 
up, sow to alfalfa, and you will probably have the field inoculated. 

Lime in the Soil — Alfalfa thrives best on soils that are most 
abundantly supplied w|th lime. It absolutely fails where lime 
is deficient. Nothing will take the place of lime, and we believe 
that there have been more failures throughout the eastern 
states owing to this deficiency than from any other cause. 

Kinds of Lime — Ground limestone is now manufactured in 
many places in the United States, and sold usually, where made, 
for about $1.25 per ton. The finer it is ground, the more quickly 
is it available. It should be applied at the rate of about one 
hundred pounds per square rod, which is at the rate of eight tons 
per acre; although where it is inaccessible, and therefore costly, 



68 FOR BETTER CROPS 

much lighter applications are used with good results, although 
not so lasting. Sometimes one can get crushed limestone 
screenings, much of it as fine as sand. This stuff is used for con- 
crete work, walks, and ballast, and often may be bought as low 
as fifty cents per ton or less. When the ground limestone is not 
available, and this coarser material is, Ave advise its use. Put 
on more of it, and eventually every bit of it will become availa- 
ble. It will last for many years in the soil, giving out its bene- 
ficial influence constantly. Many farmers having ledges of 
limestone upon their land can well afford to grind their own 
limestone at home; and a machine capable of grinding a little 




A heavy crop of alfalfa 

more than a ton an hour and taking in stones 11 x 13 inches in 
size costs about $600.00. These machines are very durable and 
the expense of operating them quite light. 

Other Forms o£ Lime — When limest(^ne rock is burned, the 
carbon is driven off, and caustic lime remains. Burned lime has 
lost about one-half its weight, so that a ton of burned lime has 
as much power to sweeten soils as two tons of unburned or car- 
bonate of lime. The one difficulty with burned lime is that it 
has this caustic nature, and is said to destroy part of the liuraus 
of the soil. Burned lime is more easily secured, and the freight 
rates on it are often less than with the ground limestone. From 
one to two tons per acre of the caustic lime are used. It may be 
ground very easily after being burned, and then drilled into the 



FOR BETTER CROPS 69 

soil; or it may be slaked with a little water so that it falls into 
a white powder, and then distributed. "Agricultural lime," 
often sold at absurdly high prices, is simply burned lime slaked 
and ground, and ^is in no way better than the lump that any 
farmer can slake at home. 

Air-Slaked Lime — If you do not use ground limestone, air- 
slaked lime is the only thing that you should use. It requires 
one and one-half to two tons of it to do as much work as one ton 
of caustic lime, but while caustic lime attacks the humus of the 
soil, air-slaked lime probably does very little injury in this way. 
We do, liowever, recommend that this lime should have not less 
than six months' time in which to air-slake, and a year would 
be still better. In this time, if the lime is well burned, all the 
lumps should slake, making it much easier to apply, and also 
very much safer to use on your ground. We advise using air- 
slaked lime at the rate of two to four tons per acre. It is unwise 
to sow lime and acid phosphate at the same time, as the lime 
would neutralize the phosphate; probably this would n®t apply 
to untreated phosphate rock. 

Lime Not Everywhere Needed — Because of the wide- 
spread interest in alfalfa and lime, we get letters asking about 
the application of lime, from regions where we cannot think 
lime is needed. Hardly anywhere is it needed in the arid region, 
in the Dakotas, in Nebraska — perhaps nowhere in alkaline soils; 
probably not in any place where limestone gravel is mixed 
through the soil by the glaciers would additional lime be espe- 
cially needed. When it is somewhat difficult to get stands of red 
clover; when "sorrel" comes in the land; and crab grass crowds 
out the alfalfa; when the alfalfa plants that come have a sickly 
yellow appearance instead of a dark vigorous green; then one 
may safely assume that lime is needed; and in the humid regions 
of the east, wherever Kentucky blue grass and white clover is 
not the natural carpet of the soil, alfalfa growers should take 
heed of the need of more carbonate of lime before sowing their 
seed. 

Alfalfa and Tile Under-Drains — The question is often 
asked: "Will alfalfa stop tile under-drains?" On Woodland 
Farm with probably eighteen miles of tile under-drains, only a 
few hundred yards have given trouble from being stopped with 
alfalfa roots. These places where trouble has occurred are 
where running water flows through the tile continuously from 
perennial springs. In no instance has the alfalfa given trouble 
to ordinary farm drains where the tiles become dry in summer. 

A Thin Stand of Alfalfa — It rarely pays to try to thicken 
alfalfa. The seed will usually come up all right, but for some 
reason it will mostly perish throughout the first season. Disking 



70 FOR BETTER CROPS 

will make the alfalfa stool out more and thereby help the stand, 
or clover may be sown with the thin alfalfa with good results. 
Another very excellent method which we recommend, is 
plowing the alfalfa up, and plowing it quite deeply. This will 
not kill nearly all of the young plants. Then immediately re- 
seed, and the second time you will be almost certain to secure 
an excellent stand of alfalfa. 

Weeds in Alfalfa — Good soils are frequently stored with 
weed seeds; yet a thorough cultivation of the ground the year 
proceeding the sowing of alfalfa will accomplish much. Ordinary 
weed seeds are pretty well destroyed by the mower running over 
the ground two or three times the first season. Canada thistles 
are said to be eradicated by the growing of alfalfa; and many 
other serious pests, including convolvulus arvcnsis variously 
styled bindwood, wild morning glory, or wild pea vine. 

Sometimes a little sweet clover {melilotus) is unavoidably 
present in alfalfa seed. This need give no concern, since the 
natural mowings given the alfalfa will eradicate it in two years. 
There are weeds, however, that will get the better of alfalfa, 
and that right speedily. One of the worst is dodder. Not many 
farmers know dodder when they see it. It is a parasitic vine, 
having an almost leafless, yellow stem as large as a small twine 
string, which runs through the alfalfa, twining around the 
stems, sending little rootlets in to suck the juice of the plant. 
Dodder begins its life from a seed dropped to the earth when 
the alfalfa is sown ; but after having had a brief experience with 
its roots in the soil, it leaves the earth and roots only in the 
growing alfalfa, which it binds together in a death grip, making 
a dense tangle of yellow vines and slowly dying alfalfa plants. 

Farmers cannot afford to treat dodder as they would any 
other weed. It is so deadly that it must be stamped out imme- 
diately, or it will become a very serious pest, and tlie methods 
used to exterminate other weeds will not answer for this one. If 
there are only occasional small patches to be found, mow the 
alfalfa in these patches before the dodder begins to bloom ; then 
in a few days, scatter straw over the infested areas, and burn it. 
This may kill the alfalfa plants, but it will probably kill the 
dodder also. If your field is badly infested, there is nothing to 
do but to plow it up, and plant it to corn or some cultivated crop 
for one or two years. 

Dodder infests clover just as frequently as it does alfalfa, 
and it is just as dangerous in the clover as it is in the alfalfa. 
Farmers should take great pains to prevent this pest from 
becoming established in their land, and should send samples of 
their seed to their experiment stations for analysis before seeding. 

Alfalfa in Corn — We cannot recommend seeding alfalfa in 
corn at the last cultivation, as many wish to do, because the 



FOR BETTER CROPS 



71 



corn nearly always shades the alfalfa so much that it will not 
tlirive until after tliecorn is cut; also tlie corn takes practically 
all of the moisture from the soil, causing the alfalfa to suffer from 
drought ; and it usually happens that we have most of the dry 
weather between the time of the last cultivation of corn and 
fall, so that all three of tliese causes will operate against the 
alfalfa. We have seen many splendid successes from this 
method, and many failures. We tliink the chances of success 
by tliis method to be about equal to the chances of failure. 

Soils Best Suited to Alfalfa — While it is true that alfalfa 
may be grown by devoted enthusiasts anyw here, yet it has affin- 
ity for certain types of soils, and is most easily grown thereon. 
These soils are deep, pervious to air and water, well stored with 
mineral elements, and somewhat alkaline in their nature. Thus 




Stacking alfalfa 



alfalfa revels in the arid west, when water is supplied, because 
there has never been any leaching of mineral fertility, and the 
land is very rich in potash, phosphorus, and lime. This alka- 
linity favors the growth and development of the bacteria that 
grow upon the alfalfa rootlets and makes the plants thrive. In 
the more eastern sections, along the Missouri river, there are 
great areas of a peculiar whitish soil called the Loess deposits. 
These soils are the result of wind deposit, made many centuries 
ago when the land w as desert. On these very deep and fairly 
fertile Loess soils alfalfa revels, its roots penetrating to very 
great depths, sometimes as far as thirty feet. 

Yet farther to the eastward are the prairies of Iowa and 
Illinois, black with stored humus and rich in plant food. On 
these prairies alfalfa does not naturally succeed very well. 
This is owing in part to a lack of drainage; in some instances. 



72 FOR BETTER CROPS 

through the decay of too much vegetable matter, there is acid- 
ity in these black soils. In many other cases there is some 
difficulty in establishing bacterial energy, and the reason for 
this is unknown. However, the remedy has been found to be 
applications of barnyard manure, which works like magic on 
these black prairie soils, and when coupled with tile under- 
draining, where it is needed, alfalfa is found to grow with 
remarkable vigor and profit on the black corn soils of Iowa and 
Illinois. The reader, if he dwells in this land, should consult 
the bulletins of the Iowa and Illinois experiment stations for 
help to make his alfalfa surely grow. 

Soils on 'iv'hich it is Difficult to Grow^ Alfalfa — It is more 
difficult to grow alfalfa on some soils than others, and on some 
of them it is not wise to make the attempt. First, any soil that 
is not more tlian two and one-half feet above the water line is 
too sliallow for continual alfalfa growth. It needs a depth of at 
least three feet to water, and if the distance is even greater all 
the better. In laying tile underdrains for a foundation to an 
alfalfa field, seek, then, to get the level of the water line down 
at least three or four feet. 

On peaty soils with little clay or sound earth within tliem, it 
is not often that alfalfa will thrive. There are some exceptions 
to this rule, though they are not well understood. 

On nearly barren sands it is doubtful if it is worth while 
trying to establish alfalfa fields. They must be continually fed 
in order to produce this forage, so rich in mineral elements, and 
it must be remembered that these mineral elements must come 
from the soil. 

Clays — While the most luxuriant growth of alfalfa is usually 
from a porous soil, a loam or gravelly alluvium, yet clays drained 
and stored with vegetable matter are producing some of the 
best growths of alfalfa in tlie United States. This is especially 
true of strong, tough limestone clays that, when in their natural 
state, hold water "like a jug," but when underdrained and well 
manured become more open and pervious to both air and mois- 
ture. On such clays alfalfa revels, and when plowed up and 
other crops are planted on the land, it is astonishing to see with 
wliat vigor they grow, revealing plainly the very great benefit 
that the alfalfa has been to the soil, both by adding nitrogen 
through the decay of its leaves and roots, and by bringing up 
mineral matters from the sub-soil, and by decaying and leaving 
air and water passages through the clay, always before too dense 
to permit these helpful agents to work their will. And when 
alfaifa is sown again upon these clays after one or two years of 
grain or hoed crops, manure being scattered over the land in the 
interval, it is found that the alfalfa responds wonderfully and 
yields better tlian it did after its first seeding. 



FOR BETTER CROPS 73 

Advantages of the Alfalfa Crop — What, briefly, are the 
advantages of the alfalfa plant over other forage crops? First, 
that it roots so deep in the soil. It is safe to say that alfalfa 
roots penetrate as deep as there is any soil. If the soil is three 
feet deep, the roots will penetrate three feet. If tlie soil is ten 
feet deep, the roots vv'ill go down ten feet. And if the soil is 
thirty feet deep, the root will go down thirty feet. Thus the 
whole soil is utilized. 

The Whole Season — Next, remember that the plant uses the 
whole of the growing season, and it is the one crop that tlie 
farmer grows that does this. It is very hardy and does not much 
mind cold. As soon in spring as the sun has slightly warmed the 
earth the alfalfa is up and is growing. It does not mind light 
frosts, but keeps right on growing. Soon after the corn is 
planted the alfalfa is ready to cut — by the first of June in most 
of the region of the corn belt, earlier in the South, and not much 
later anywhere. Thus the soil has yielded one crop almost before 
the corn has begun to take hold at all. 

Next, consider what happens when you cut off that first cut- 
ting. It should be taken away as soon as little buds appear on 
the lower part of the stems, showing that a new growth is ready 
to start up. At this time the plant will be partly in bloom and 
the leaves dropping from the larger stems. Then is the time to 
cut it down and make it into hay. The hay making must 
proceed rapidly, for soon after this first crop is laid low these buds 
start into action, and in about fifteen minutes after the mower has 
passed over the field there is a second crop under way. This makes 
it needful to get the crop off the field promptly and let the next 
one come on. In thirty days from the time it is cut there stands 
a second crop ready for the mower. And after that in thirty- 
five or forty days there is yet a third crop ready. And if it is 
taken off on time there is the fourth cutting. Much of the yield 
of these later cuttings depends of course upon the presence of 
moisture in the soil, but it is sure that the alfalfa will use all of 
the moisture from rainfall, and if irrigation is possible it will 
use a very large amount of irrigation water. Thus it uses to the 
best advantage all of the soil, all of the season from early spring 
till late fall, and all of the soil moisture. Of no other crop can 
this be said. 

Value of Resultant Crop — The best of all is that the forage 
that the alfalfa plant produces is the richest and most palatable 
that the farmer can grow. The alfalfa plant, cut at the right 
time, and rightly cured, is very rich in protein. What is protein ? 
It is what makes the red flesh and red blood of the animal. It 
is what makes nerve and brain and vital process. Alfalfa is rich 
in bone. It is the best feed for the baby on the farm, for the 
baby colt, the baby calf, the baby lamb, pig, and chick. It is 



74 FOE BETTER CROPS 

good for the baby because the baby must have protein to build 
his little body. And as it is best for the baby so it is best for 
the baby's mother. It makes her full of milk and restores her 
tissues. It builds the unborn young within her, and after its 
birth it fills her with milk to make the baby grow. 

For Working Horses— There is no one thing SO good as 
alfalfa for tlie working horse. It builds his wasting muscles, it 
keeps liim strong and healtiiy. He needs much less grain when 
he can have alfalfa hay. And he is fuller of life and spirit than 
when fed upon any other hay. It is only necessary to remember 
tliat this hay should be fairly mature when it is cut, and well 
cured so that it shall not be mouldy or musty. There ought to 
be no dust on alfalfa hay. There are no hairs upon alfalfa 
stems and leaves as there are on clover leaves; therefore alfalfa 
hay has no tendency to bestow "heaves" upon horses. For old 
and hard worked horses in thin flesh alfalfa has great restorative 
powers For driving horses it should be fed in moderate amounts, 
else it will make them fat and soft. Even working teams may 
be fed too large amounts of alfalfa hay. It should be steadily 
borne in mind that early cut and well cured alfalfa hay is nearly 
as rich, pound for pound, as wheat bran, so that to feed too 
great an amount of it is not merely wasteful, but puts an undue 
strain upon the excretory organs to eliminate the unnecessary 
food substance from the tissues. The over feeding of alfalfa 
hay to horses has in some localities caused the use of it to be- 
come unpopular, and to raise an outcry against it. To offset 
that it may be said that the writer has fed no other hay to his 
horses, both working teams and driving horses with mares and 
foals, for many years, and has yet to observe the first instance 
of evil result, save that the driving horses when not used 
regularly become soft and easily sweated. 

For Mares and Foals — There is nothing else so good for the 
mare, while she is carrying lier unborn colt, as to run on an 
alfalfa pasture, and eat alfalfa hay in winter. Her colt comes 
strong and well developed, and after it has come she is full of 
milk for it. Then if she is in the alfalfa meadow the colt early 
learns to nip the delicious herbage, and thus takes in additional 
nourishment at the time when he is best able to make use of it. 
It makes his bones grow and covers them with good, firm 
muscle, it hastens his development greatly, it adds to his beauty, 
and spirit, and usefvilness. The best thoroughbreds in the 
United States often come from the alfalfa meadows of Cali- 
fornia, and the breeders of race horses in Kentucky are beginning 
to add alfalfa to the bill of fare of their petted darlings. The 
great Percherons of France eat alfalfa with the bloom on it 
when they are lusty foals in their native land. The horse 
breeder wherever he is should at all times endeavor to call to 



FOR BETTER (Jh'OPS 75 

his aid this crop that is, par excellence, the one best suited to his 
use. While there is some dang"er in grazing- alfalfa with sheep 
or cows, there is none whatever in grazing it with horses, and 
thus not only the best but the cheapest possible development 
may be secured. 

Alfalfa for the Dairy Herd — Calves grown on alfalfa develop 
rapidly and are ready to become mothers earlier than when 
developed on other foods. Pregnant cows fed alfalfa come in 
strong and well nourished, with full udders. Milking cows 
fed alfalfa hay as part of their ration give milk as with no other 
possible combination. Not to go into figures or tables of per- 
centages, suffice It to say that alfalfa leaves are a little richer 
in protein than wheat bran, that alfalfa stems, cut early and 
nicely cured, are nearly as digestible as wheat bran, and nearly 
as palatable. Thus alfalfa may well take the place of a large 
part of the grain ration, and may be made to form nearly the 
whole of the needed protein. Thus not only is the ration very 
greatly cheapened, but the animals give far greater returns than 
when they do not have alfalfa hay. On most farms in the corn 
belt there is a decided scarcity of foods rich in protein. Corn 
itself is deficient, and enough corn can not be fed to cows 
to make them give their greatest amount of milk; whereas if the 
attempt is made, disaster results because the excess of fat form- 
ing food consumed leads to disorders of digestion or makes the 
cow herself too fat to be long a profitable dairy animal. Further- 
more, the corn fodder and stover, the timothy hay and blue 
grass, the oat straw, sorghum, silage, nearly the whole list of 
common farm crops that can be grown for the dairy, are deficient 
in protein, so that alfalfa has for the dairy farmer a very great 
value, coming as it does to balance up these other more fattening 
and heat making provenders. This is not mere theory, but a 
fact most abundantly proven by experience in the west, in the 
middle states and later in the heart of the best dairying section, 
through New York, Pennsylvania, and New England, where 
some of the farmers are producing their own alfalfa, and others 
are securing it from their more fortunate brothers of the west. 
The writer has himself sent alfalfa hay to a gentleman milking 
one of the best herds of Guernseys in America, animals fed as 
well as science and skill could devise, and had word afterward 
that the addition of alfalfa hay to their ration made an increase 
in milk yield of twenty per cent! 

Alfalfa and Silage the Cheapest Dairy Ration — With good 
alfalfa hay and good sweet corn silage, made from corn that has 
been allowed to mature well before being harvested, the cheapest 
and best milk yields are secured. With this ration there is 
indeed very little need of any other grain. That great dairy 
authority, ex-Governor Hoard, has found in practice that with 



76 FOR BETTER CROPS * 

this combination, and as little as four or five pounds daily of 
grain, not only has he had the maximum returns, in milk and 
cream, but he has seen the dairy herd maintained in remarkable 
health and vigor. It is time the farmer should break away from 
the bonds that bind him to the miller and the dealer in food 
supplies, and learn to produce on his own farm nearly all that 
his animals need, including that most precious and costly thing 
of all, the protein content of his animals' ration. 

Alfalfa for Sheep— With lambs selling for $7.00 to $8.00 per 
head, and wool soaring, men begin to ask what sort of foods best 
agree with sheep. The answer is, if there is one thing that 
alfalfa is especially suited to, it is to the flock. Sheep love 
alfalfa above all other forage, and for a good reason. It is the 
one thing best suited to their needs. They, more than other 
animals, need a ration rich in protein. The growing lamb needs 
it to build his muscles, blood, brain, nerves, and bone. The 
pregnant or nursing ewe needs it to replenish her system fast 
drained by the demands of her offspring. The ram needs it to 
keep up his vigor. The wool bearing sheep, and all breeds bear 
some wool, need alfalfa because it lias in it the peculiar ele- 
ments that make for growth of good, healthy, strong fibered 
wool. And thus all sheep crave and love alfalfa hay. Think 
for a moment what it means for an animal to like a food. 
Liking in the animal world is not whim or caprice. Man is the 
one animal, save a worm, that chews tobacco — the only animal 
that drinks whisky. All animals crave things that are good 
for them. Why do they hunger for fitting foods ? Because the 
very cells of their bodies are calling to be built, and thus instinct 
tells them that tough grasses nourish feebly if at all, that tender, 
rich alfalfa leaves and stems have in them substances that when 
assimilated go directly to build the eager body cells, to reinforce 
the muscles and strengthen the bones and link together the 
nerves. It is a fact that sheep once accustomed to a diet of 
alfalfa will scorn prairie hay and turn from good red clover; 
they seek that whicii nourishes best and digests most easily, 
therefore that tastes best to them. 

The Pregnant Ewe— The pregnant ewe needs alfalfa to 
make grow within her that highly organized body made up 
mostly of protein compounds, her unborn lamb. She ne6ds it 
to repair the waste in her own body. She needs it to store her 
udder with milk against the time of coming of that feeble baby 
head bunting unsteadily against her and seeking nourishment. 
With alfalfa in abundance she comes in strong, her baby lamb is 
strong, her milk flow assured. There is need that she should 
have not quite as much alfalfa as she would consume, else she 
might overdo the matter, and the lamb be born too large for 



FOR BETTER CROPS 



77 



safe delivery. She should have exercise and a liberal supply of 
fresh air. Then her safe lambing is assured. 

The Milking Ewe— After the lamb is born there is no longer 
any need to stint the ewe in the amount of alfalfa she is fed; her 
own instinct will tell her how much. And it should be of the 
earliest cuttings, and nicely cured with the leaves all on. With 
this alfalfa, very little grain indeed will be needed to make her 
give liberally of milk before grass comes. And after the first 
green grass of spring comes, it is fine if she can have her regular 
ration of alfalfa hay to supplement the grass, prevent scours, and 
make her keep strong and in good flesh. Of course her little 
lamb will eat alfalfa hay from the time it is three days old, the 




Alfalfa in the stack 



tender leaves first, the stems later on, and there should be a 
special rack for it where the ewes can not come to disturb. 
With alfalfa hay and a little corn added, soaking both in mothers' 
milk, the baby lambs will soon attain a beautiful baby maturity 
that will enable their owners to sell them for many, many 
shekels of the coin of the realm. 

Alfalfa for Feeding Lambs — For fattening lambs born on 
the great ranges and kept there till weaning time in the fall, 
nothing can take the place of alfalfa hay, if the greatest facility 
coupled with the largest profits are sought. The lamb feeding 
business has grown to magnificent proportions in Colorado, where 
the abundant streams coursing down from the giant snow capped 



78 FOR BETTER CROPS 

Rockies spread their life giving waters over tlie fertile plains. 
There alfalfa is at its best estate, and nothing else is quite so 
profitable, saving perhaps the crops that naturally follow on 
alfalfa sod — sugar beets, melons, or truck. Enormous amounts 
of alfalfa hay are stacked up on these plains where the long, dry 
summers favor hay making operations very greatly, and when 
winter comes the lambs are bought and placed in feed lots, and 
fed till spring on alfalfa hay with a little Nebraska or Kansas 
corn or native barley or wheat. These lambs often come from 
the ranges half starved, having perhaps endured long drives and 
been held in corrals and shipping pens until they are little more 
than bones strung on end, but after they have eaten alfalfa hay 
for a time they become strong once more and ready to make 
good use of corn. 

Alfalfa Fed Beef Cattle — What has been said of the mare 
and of the ewe applies as well to the beef cow. If she has a 
sufficiency of alfalfa in winter she needs no grain at all. After 
her calf comes she may have a little grain, and she and the calf 
all the alfalfa they care to take. Her calf should be developed 
largely on alfalfa. It may eat alfalfa hay every day of its life, 
may be soiled with alfalfa during the growing season, may possibly 
be grazed on alfalfa pasture; though by far the better way is to 
cut the alfalfa and bring it to the calf. By this manner of feed- 
ing good flesh is produced and stature assured. It is too common 
among breeders of beef cattle in the corn belt to confine their 
animals to rations composed mainly of corn and grass, neither 
having in them enough protein, thus there is a steady loss in 
size, in "scale," the animals soon become fat, undersized, "bunty" 
and "bunchy." The difficulty is that you liave been asking 
impossibilities of the animal, asking it to make bricks without 
straw, or to build without bricks at all. Therefore breeders of 
pedigreed cattle find it necessary to have frequent recourse to 
Canadian and English herds to maintain the character of their 
own. In these other lands less corn and more clover and other 
foods rich in protein are fed than in our own. There is blood 
in a turnip. There is blood and form and breeding in alfalfa, a 
plant that gives character to whatever it becomes. Therefore, 
let the breeder of beef cattle see to it that alfalfa is one of his 
chief reliances. 

Alfalfa for Feeding Steers — Fattening cattle might be 
thought to be an exception to the rule heretofore insisted upon; 
they are desired to be fattened as rapidly as possible, why, there- 
fore, need they be fed any foods rich in protein? Why not feed 
them in the old-fashioned way with corn alone, to quickly cover 
their ribs, and then let them go forward to market? 

The theory sounds well, but does not work well in practice. 
These animals find waste going on in their own systems. 



FOR BETTER CROPS 79 

Digestive processes require muscular action, and there is need 
to repair muscular tissue. Nerve force is to be maintained. 
Then, after all, when these animals come to the feed lot they 
seldom have an adequate frame of lean tissue on which to build 
the fat. Moreover, the modern trade demands lean flesh inter- 
mixed with fat, not fat laid on in masses. And, finally, digestion 
goes on better when there is fed a variety of foods containing 
both fats and muscle builders. So theory backs up practice, and 
that tells always that steers fatten more quickly, more clieaply, 
and better, when they have all the alfalfa hay that they want in 
connection with their corn. It is astonishing how much tlie 
cost of fattening these cattle may be reduced if they are bought 
young and fed plentifully on good alfalfa hay, and only moderately 
with corn. And when this beef goes to the killer he finds it by 
far the most profitable. There is no doubt of the great place 
that alfalfa should fill in the cattle feeders' business. The 
younger the cattle, the truer they are "babies," and the better 
it pays to feed them alfalfa hay. 

Alfalfa for Pigs — The problem of maintaining brood sows 
in complete health in winter time is a serious one in the corn 
belt. They are voracious and must be fed. If fed sufficient corn 
to satisfy them they become too fat and have weak litters of pigs, 
or so unwieldy that they destroy their offspring through their 
very great clumsiness. If they are deprived of sufficient corn to 
do this and given no other food, they do not keep in health, since 
it is nature's way to have the stomachs and digestive tracts of 
the sow distended with bulky food. Therefore unless this is 
done there is set up within her an unnatural craving that ends 
in causing her to eat her pigs at farrowing time. Now if she is 
fed a liberal allowance of alfalfa hay she finds in it nearly all the 
nourishment that she needs, she finds her alimentary canal dis- 
tended comfortably, she is satisfied with same, and she brings 
into the world a fine litter of pigs, and has milk for them. She 
has use of her natural instincts and seldom destroys her pigs, 
either by accident or intent. It is wise to allow her an ear or 
two of corn each day in addition to what early cut alfalfa hay 
she will consume. 

If it is summer time and she can have the run of the alfalfa 
field she will thrive with very little grain in addition until the 
pigs come. After that time it will pay to feed her a little more 
grain. The sucking pigs will soon learn to nip the tender leaves 
and stems, and that will add greatly to their thrift and growth. 
It pays largely, however, to feed corn in addition to alfalfa pas- 
ture to shotes. It is not necessary to feed so much as when they 
do not have access to alfalfa; about half the usual amount of 
grain will cause a fine, thrifty growth. At the close of their life 
period it is well to give whatever amount of corn they will eat 



80 FOR BETTER CROPS 

up clean. In this manner is made the cheapest and best possi- 
ble pork. Fed in this way an acre of alfalfa pastured with hogs 
has made a clear profit in one year of as much as $25.00. 

Grain to Feed with Alfalfa — Corn is the best single grain 
to be fed in connection with alfalfa. Corn is rich in fat and low 
in protein. Alfalfa is very rich in protein and somewhat low in 
fat. These two should not be separated where flesh is desired. 
They most admirably supplement each other. Either for the 
fattening lamb, pig, calf, or steer the ration of corn and alfalfa 
is an ideal one, for they very nearly balance each other, and both 
can be produced on the farm, and both are adapted to most 
parts of the United States and much of Canada. 

After corn, however, come barley and oats and wheat, valu- 
able to supplement alfalfa, though of the three barley is best, 
being richer in fat making elements. Very good lambs are made 
with alfalfa and barley, or alfalfa and wheat, or alfalfa and oats, 
or with a mixture of them all together. Yet when corn is availa- 
ble at nearly the same price it is very much to be preferred. 

Alfalfa for Poultry — The alfalfa field is a rich storehouse 
for the poultry keeper. In summer time fowls forage far and 
wide, eating the tender alfalfa leaves, rich in protein, and find- 
ing insects. In winter time fowls will consume great amounts 
of alfalfa leaves and the fine stems. Sometimes alfalfa is ground 
into meal for poultry and swine. This is well, though when it 
is in large supply it is not necessary to do this, as it is cheaper 
to waste a part of the stems than to grind them into meal. 
Fowls given all the alfalfa that they desire are more healthy and 
lay many more eggs than without it. 

What Alfalfa Does for the Soil — Supposing that all that 
has been said is true, as the reader may well believe, there must 
arise within his mind a doubt as to whetlier there can be any 
further cataloguing of the virtues of the alfalfa plant. Have 
not its virtues been exhausted by now? By no means! One 
of the very best of its gifts to man is yet to be related — alfalfa 
enriches soils. It is a clover, and enriches soils in the same 
manner that all clovers do by the growth upon its roots of bac- 
teria, that have the power to fix nitrogen from the air. By this 
means it wonderfully improves soils. Then by its very deep 
roots it feeds upon the lower depths of the soil and draws up the 
stores of fertility that may be down there. After alfalfa has 
grown upon a field for two, three, four, six, or more years, when 
that field is broken it will be found to have been enriched beyond 
what was ever known of it before. Whatsoever is planted upon 
that land will yield wonderfully, and again when it is laid down 
to alfalfa that will in turn grow better tlian it did before. That 
is perhaps because of the inoculation that has taken place and 



FOR BETTER CROPS 81 

that enables one to get a perfect stand of alfalfa sooner, and 
because the decay of the long roots has opened up the subsoil 
and made it more readily permeable. 

How Alfalfa Hay May Bnild Soils — The amount of ferti- 
lizing material that will come from an acre of first class alfalfa 
is equal to what would be bought in the bag for $60.00. Now if 
the owner of a depleted soil can get one small field established 
in alfalfa, and will save the hay and feed it with care, saving all 
of the manure and putting it out upon another tract, he can 
thus enrich this sufficiently to make it grow alfalfa. Now let 
him have the two fields producing alfalfa, and using the hay 
again and saving tlie manure he is ready to enriqh the third 
field. And thus gradually he may extend the area of his alfalfa 
land until some day, if that man has faith and keeps on, some 
day he may sweep the poverty altogether off his farm and find it 
redeemed, glorious in beauty in summer time and yielding him 
a steady and very great profit. This may not be so well under- 
stood by readers who, living in the arid west, find all of their 
land ready to take alfalfa, but in the older clays of the rainy 
east, little land is naturally now in condition to take the seed 
until it has been first enriched. 

How to Start an Alfalfa Field — Naturally the ways of 
sowing alfalfa vary with the location and climates. In the arid 
West it is a simple matter. The land is usually plowed in win- 
ter or early spring, worked down to a good seedbed and the 
seed sown alone in middle spring time. It is irrigated occasion- 
ally according to the nature of the soil, and crops are of ten taken 
from it the same year, though it is not at its best until the 
third year, but it will yield very heavy crops the second year. 
In some countries it is a practice to sow a light seeding of oats 
with the alfalfa, in otlier regions this will not do since the oats 
will lodge or bed down and smother the slender alfalfa plants. 
In general the better practice in the_arid region is to sow the 
alfalfa alone. 

The amount of seed to the acre varies between four and 
thirty pounds. The smaller amount of seed is sometimes sown 
when seed is desired from it, as it seeds better not to be thick. 
There are 14,448,000 seeds in a bushel of alfalfa seed. Therefore 
to sow half a bushel to the acre would put 166 seeds to the 
square foot. To sow fifteen pounds would put on eighty-three 
seeds. Seeing that this is true, it is evident that it is more 
essential to have good seed and good distribution of the seed 
than to use a great amount of seed. About twelve to sixteen 
plants to the square foot are all that will ever stand, and on 
rich, deep soils they will not long endure even that much 
crowding. 



82 FOB BETTER CBOBS 

Clipping the Young Alfalfa — Weeds often come up to 
crowd the young alfalfa. To destroy these weeds clip the field 
with the mower, setting it to run as close to the ground as pos- 
sible. There may come a yellowish rust that attacks the leaves. 
To destroy this clip close with the mower. Therefore when 
preparing land for alfalfa, see to it that the field is left as smooth 
as practicable, so that the mower may run over it in security. 
This trouble of the leaf rust will not be so much in evidence in 
western lands as in the lands east of the Mississippi river. 

Pasturing on Young Alfalfa Seedings — It is not well to 
allow any animals to graze upon a young alfalfa meadow. They 
will likely do far more damage than the good they will get will 
pay for. When it is time for the alfalfa to be clipped, take the 
mower to it, and if there is enough stuff on the ground to be 
worth while, rake it up and take it away. After the first season 
pasturing may be resorted to if it is thought desirable, and lit- 
tle bad result will be seen if the field is not over stocked. 

Seeding Alfalfa in the Middle West — In the region from 
the Mississippi river to the western limit of the rain belt, alfalfa 
thrives well but more care is needed to get stands than in the 
arid region proper. Spring sowings are usual, without a nurse 
crop. A better plan is to plow the land early in spring or dur- 
ing the winter, and to work it up with disk or harrow as soon 
as the growing season lias started weed life, and thereafter to 
harrow it after every rain until some time in late May or June, 
when the seed may be sown with confidence that it will not be 
choked with weeds, and that there will be enough moisture 
stored in the soil to carry it triumphantly through the hot 
summer. The essential thing in this plan is, however, to be 
certain to harrow thoroughly after every rain, not only to 
destroy germinating weeds, but to conserve all of the moisture. 
When the seed is sown it should be sown if possible with a drill, 
about one and one-half or two inches deep. Earlier in the 
season it is not necessary to sow it so deep. The depth that 
alfalfa seed may be sown varies according to the soil, but in 
most of this region the soils are black, loose, and loamy. 

Field Seeding in Iowa — A method that has given very fine 
results for the past few years has been practiced in Iowa; it is 
the sowing after a crop of wheat or oals in mid-summer. To 
accomplish this the crop of wiieat or oats is removed as early as 
possible and at once the land is plowed. Each day what is 
plowed is prepared with care to permit the escape of as little 
moisture as possible. The alfalfa seed is sown alone. It needs 
no clipping that year, goes safely through the winter and the 
next year gives three large crops of hay. The advantage of this 
method is that there is no loss of land and no trouble with 



FUR BETTEB CROPS 83 

weeds or fox tail grass, the great pest of alfalfa growers in the 
corn belt. Should the late summer prove unusually dry, this 
method might not be successful, and in case it is to be sown on 
clay that naturally freezes and thaws often during the winter 
and heaves badly, the young alfalfa roots might not be strong 
enough to resist. Thus far, however, it has given excellent 
results at the Iowa experiment station and is being adopted in 
other parts of that state. It is probably a system adapted to 
Illinois conditions, especially in the northern part. 

Need of Manure in Iowa and Illinois — The soils of this 
region are black and quite rich. And yet for many years tiiey 
refused to grow profitable crops of alfalfa. It was found to be 
very difficult to grow alfalfa upon them. When it did grow it 
seemed often to be without nodules upon the roots, and there- 
fore devoid of bacteria. A few years ago it was discovered 
that when stable manure was spread upon that seemingly fat, 
black land, alfalfa was easily established upon it and inoculation 
came naturally and abundantly. Now on all the soils of this 
region when well enough drained, alfalfa may be very profitably 
grown if care is taken first to liberally distribute over the fields 
stable or yard manure, working it into the soil to create there 
the ferment or yeast needed In that soil to start the bacterial 
life, and after it is once established it will endure profitably 
for a number of years; how long it is not yet possible to say. 

Sowing Alfalfa on Eastern Clay Soils— The best method of 
sowing seems to be to break the land, after having thoroughly 
well manured and drained it, and plant one year to corn, keeping 
the corn clean of weeds and fox tail grass. The next year it 
should be again plowed as early in winter or spring as it can be 
and deeper than ever before. After danger of hard freezing is 
over, say in late April, the seed is sown upon a nicely pulverized 
seedbed, at the rate of from ten to fifteen pounds per acre. At 
tiie same time a bushel of beardless spring barley is sown for a 
nurse crop. Oats are not admissible, since on this well manured 
land, they usually lodge and destroy the young plants beneath. 
The barley is taken off when ripe for grain and the young alfalfa 
is clipped at the same time. It may need one or two subsequent 
clippings, and it may not. The safe rule is to let it alone as long 
as it continues to grow thriftily. When it rusts and stops grow- 
ing, or when fox tail grass or weeds crowd it, it should be mowed 
off close. The object of the barley is to discourage that marauder, 
fox tail grass, which it does quite effectually. Thus you will gain 
also the crop of barley for the use of the land. It is not usual to 
get much alfalfa the first year of sowing. If any of the clippings 
make hay enough to be worth raking off, save them. Keep all 
animals off the field the first season. 



84 FOB BETTER CROPS 

Never Allow Animals to Tread on Alfalfa Fields in 
Winter — It is sure death to the crowns to be tramped upon in 
cold weather, especially in the eastern states. Neither should 
wagons ever pass over the meadows in winter. 

Making Alfalfa Hay— The time tocut alfalfa is when it lias 
begun to bloom, the lower leaves to turn yellow and drop off, 
and buds to start out from the base of the stems. Cut then, 
for it has in it the greatest amount of nutrients. Allowed 
to stand longer, the stems become woody, some of the leaves 
are lost, and the hay is not so palatable, nutritious, nor digest- 
ible. If cut too soon, before the buds have set on the stems, 
sometimes the succeeding crop is seriously injured, for what 
reason is not yet known. 

Rush the Hay Making — If possible, all of one crop should be 
cut down within a week, seeing that it is all ready at one time. 
Thus the hay is secured in best condition and the following crop 
is benefited by being given the space in which to grow. Wide 
cut mowers are convenient things in the alfalfa field. After the 
hay is laid down the liaymakers should keep close watch, and 
as soon as it shows signs of drying and before the leaves will 
fall from the stems, it should be raked into small windrows and 
permitted to cvire in part in the windrow, or in the cock, 
according to where you are and what sort of climate you must 
work in. Alfalfa dried in the swath loses many of the leaves 
when raked. 

Side Delivery Hay Rakes — These machines work well in 
alfalfa meadows, since they leave the hay loose, in good con- 
dition for drying. In eastern meadows, under showery con- 
ditions, the hay is best cocked up in small cocks while [it is yet 
tougli. Such cocks will turn rain well and may be afterward 
opened out on a sunny day, or they may become dry without 
opening. Then, too, hay caps may be used on the cocks to 
advantage. 

The Test of Sufficient Dryness— Take a wisp of tlie hay, 
choosing a damp part of it, and twist it violently into a rope. If 
no moisture can be made to exude from the stems the hay may 
be put into the mow or stack, especially if many tons are to be 
put together. If only a ton or two will be put into a small mow 
it should be well dried before putting away, since it is more apt 
to mould and become musty than when much is piled together. 

Need of Drainage in Illinois and Parts of low^a and Min- 
nesota There is a serious need in much of the black soil of 

this corn belt of more complete drainage than it has at present, 
before it is really fit for alfalfa culture. Men growing only corn, 
or corn and oats and timothy hay, have not usually a vivid con- 



FOR BETTER CROPS • 85 

ception of how wet their lands are during a good part of the 
year. In Illinois very much of the draining that has been 
done has been done superficially, with tile too close to the sur- 
face. These should be deepened so that none of them is at a 
less depth than thirty-six inches, and if they can be put down 
forty-eight inches all the better. Then there are needed other 
drains between the ones now in use. When this is done and 
some manure made use of, there is no doubt that very fine alfalfa 
fields can be maintained in Illinois. 

Comparison of Corn and Alfalfa — It is hard for a farmer 
in the heart of the corn belt to consider seriously the demands 
of any other crop, yet if he will study alfalfa a little he will see 
that he is accepting no inferior plant when he puts it in place 
of some of his corn fields. Alfalfa will make on good land in 




Motor baling press in operation 

that region a total yield during the season of from four to eight 
tons I per acre. Taking six tons as a standard, and calling the 
hay worth $8.00 per ton, there is thus derived from that acre a 
gross revenue of $48.00. To equal that amount the field must 
yield 120 bushels of corn which must sell at forty cents per 
bushel. Or, put it according to the amount of available and 
digestible carbohydrates and protein produced by these crops, 
the alfalfa will yield fully three times as much protein as the 
corn and double the carbohydrates, too! Furthermore, the 
alfalfa is not depleting the soil, while corn is a robber crop. 

Alfalfa Seeding in the Eastern Regions — East of Illinois 
begin the clays, gravels, and loams that extend through Indiana, 
Ohio, New York, Pennsylvania, and the sister states. Few in- 
deed of these soils are ready for alfalfa in their natural state, 
yet all of them will yield it most profitably when made fit for 



H6 FOR BETTER CROPS 

it. The requirements of alfalfa in these states are simple. It 
needs, first, to have tlie land drained, if it is not naturally dry. 
It requires that the land be sweet. In parts of Indiana, north- 
ern Ohio, in some of Pennsylvania and Nevi' York there are acid 
soils. These must first be sweetened witli lime before they will 
grow good alfalfa. The third requirement is that these soils be 
stored with organic matter, with humus. That means that 
they must be spread over with stable manure. After these 
three conditions have been met there is nothing but a little 
knowledge of the plant necessary to make it thrive admirably. 
The farm on which the writer lives grows now annually about 
350 tons of alfalfa hay, though ten years ago little of its area 
was adapted to alfalfa at all. Tile underdrains and manure 
have made its growth possible, and it has proven very profit- 
able. 

Plowing Alfalfa Sod— Alfalfa sod is very hard to plow; 
with indifferent tools, impossible: It can be done with comfort, 
but it requires, first, a good team of three strong horses; next, a 
plow, preferably a walking plow, in good repair, with a very 
sharp share. Next, it needs a sober and Christian hearted man. 
And it is a great aid to carry a file, and frequently file to a 
knife edge the cutting edge of the share> A little V shaped wing 
running horizontally out frorn .the landsidei under the edge of 
the uncut land about three inqhe^ is a great help, since it makes 
the plow run steadily i^nd, renijers the next furrow far easier to 
turn. ,;'^- v^N 

Some of the alfalfa roots will not be cut off, and they will live 
over, doing nqr harm in the succeeding crop. All that are cut 
off will probaToly die, and there is no danger of alfalfa spreading 
beyond the original limits of its field. 

Alfalfa Makes Little Seed in Rainy Regions — It seeds 
best in the dry parts of Kansas, Nebraska and westward. 
Usually the first crop is allowed to make seed. It is easily 
threshed, and in favorable seasons yields heavily, from one to 
fifteen bushels per acre being reported. The only seed worth 
much is the common alfalfa, but it is wise not to get seed 
from a latitude south of you. 

Inoculation— Alfalfa will not thrive without the right 
bacteriaupon the roots. Nor will milk sour without the bacteria 
of souring being present. And yet milk sours, and yet women 
folks do not add bacteria, knowingly, to their milk. Never- 
theless milk will sour more rapidly if a little sour milk is added 
to the sweet at milking time. So alfalfa will surely become 
inoculated by natural processes if grown on fit soil, but it will 
the sooner become inoculated if earth from an old field is dried 
in the shed and pulverized and sown broadcast over the field 



88 FOR BETTER CROPS 

and harrowed in. There are also cultures available that are 
used to inoculate the seed. They are sometimes of use. They 
often fail to be of use, through some defect in the method. It 
is not worth while to bother with cultures. It is worth while 
when sowing alfalfa on land that has never had it before to use 
soil from either an old alfalfa field or a sweet clove (meUlotus) 
patch. The bacteria that ive on meUlotus are the same that 
live upon alfalfa. 

Do not sow either alfalfa or bacteria upon soils not a fit 
home for bacteria. That means that the land should be dry, 
sweet, and stored with vegetable matter. 

Some Other Things About Alfalfa — Bees love the blooms, 
especially in the western lands. Alfalfa honey is prime. Alfalfa 
covers the land with perennial beauty. It makes work for 
many laborers to gather the harvests and to feed the hay. It 
causes new homes to spring up, puts paint on school houses, and 
sends little urchins trudging along country lanes with full 
dinner pails and smiling faces. It is one of God's richest gifts 
to man. 




The Wheat Crop 



PREPARATION OF SEED BED— SELECTION OF SEED- 
VARIETIES— SOIL CONDITIONS, ETC. 



By Waldo F. Brown 

Farm Specialist, Oxford, Ohio 

Revised by A. E. and F. C. Brown 




A World Problem —Wheat production 
is a world problem. American investi- 
gators have been at work for years upon 
this subject. As a country grows older 
the food supply becomes a more complex 
problem. New soils give back in prodigal 
measure food for the eater and seed for 
the sower. There are certain underlying 
principles in wheat production appli- 
cable to all soils and all countries, and 
American investigators have been busy 
collecting and classifying data from all 
ages and all countries for the benefit of the American farmer 
in his search for the best methods of seeding, best varieties of 
seed, and most profltableways of handling the wheat crop. The 
farmers of the eastern part of the United States find they can 
produce the best crops by early summer plowing and continual 
working of the seed bed until time for planting; while, with 
worn out soils where the problem of returning lost fertilityis, 
added the question becomes a scientific one, and the farmer may 
turn to our agricultural experts for help. 

Some of the essentials to be considered in successful wheat 
growing are natural or artificial drainage, a compact seed bed, 
intelligent warfare against insect enemies, and a selection of 
seed suitable to locality and soils. A wise rotation of crops is 
also important in maintaining the fertility of the soil. In some 
sections a three-year rotation is followed with success ; in others 
a five-year rotation gives paying returns. 

Fertilizer — Wheat and clover are inseparable in many sec- 
tions, and no cheaper or better fertilizer can be obtained. There 
are a number of leguminous plants valuable for green manuring — 
clover, cow peas, soy beans, Canada field peas and vetch — but all 
things considered clover stands easily at the head of the list. 
Clover produces a network of roots which penetrate the soil far 

80 



90 FOR BETTER CROPS 

below the reach of the plow and contains more organic matter 
than the foliage. The fact that a profitable crop of hay may be 
cut and still leave fertility in the soil equal to ten or twelve 
loads of stable manure to the acre, makes clover an ideal crop 
for keeping up the supply of plant food. Even when the crop 
is cut once for hay and once for seed the land is greatly bene- 
fited. 

Plant Food Elements— The question naturally arises, What 
elements, besides nitrogen, does clover add to the soil? The analy- 
sis given below of the clover plant, roots, stem, leaves, and flowers, 
taken at a time when the flowers had begun to fade, gave the 
following result — in order to obtain the mineral elements the 
plant was reduced to ashes and the analysis showed : 



Phosphoric acid, 


5.82 


Lime, 


35.02 


Potash, 


18.44 


Soda, 


2.79 


Sulphuric acid. 


3.01 


Earthy matter, 


34.92 



100.00 

From this table, the large proportion of lime and potash are 
seen at once, and they are two important elements in wheat 
production. To get the best results from the clover crop, a 
good stand is necessary, and this is much easier to obtain on 
fields where the grain has been drilled instead of broadcasted. 
It is often advisable to make two sowings of clover to overcome 
adverse conditions, if either seeding fails to make a good stand. 
Some soils are not adapted to growing clover ; usually this is 
caused by too much acid in the soil. The application of lime 
will correct this ; or other legumes than clover may be substi- 
tuted, as they will grow where clover will not. 

Compacting the Soil — When cutting the grain, the sickle 
should be set high in order that the stubble may protect the 
clover plants. Care must be taken in giving back to the land 
any growth of green manure. A heavy growth plowed under 
just before seeding time will almost certainly insure a failure of 
the succeeding crop. This is because a heavy growth of any 
kind when first plowed under produces a loose soil which will 
hold water and freeze and thaw to a greater depth than well 
compacted soil. To prepare an ideal seed bed for fall sowing of 
wheat the ground should be plowed as soon as the hay crop is 
cut. The depth to plow will be determined by the character of 
the soil. To obtain the best results from green manuring, the . 
soil should be compacted as soon after plowing as possible. If 
but one team can be used in preparing the land, the plow and 
roller should be used alternately, leaving the land both plowed 



92 FOR BETTER CROPS 



and rolled at the end of each day. If, however, weather condi- 
tions are favorable and the ground moist, the roller need not be 
used at once, but where the land is dry and the sun hot, prompt 
rolling is important. It is wonderful what power fine soil has 
to retain moisture. A field that has been thoroughly compacted 
and mellowed on the surface can be seeded after a shower that 
would have little or no effect on a cloddy surface. The lack of 
available moisture in the soil robs the plant of much fertility, 
and will cause poor crops where heavy ones might be produced 
by attention to this one point. 

Care of the Field — If for any reason it is impossible to plow 
early for wheat, and the clover plant has been left on the ground, 
the clover should be mowed and drawn off the field or burned 
before plowing. It is then better to make a shallow seed bed, 
say four or five inches, compacting the soil as thoroughly as 
possible. Burning the fields before plowing accomplishes two 
purposes; first, the removal of too great a bulk of vegetable mat- 
ter; second, the destruction of many insect pests. Experiments 
have shown that cut-worms are among the pests destroyed in 
this way. 

Many farmers consider the tramping of land by cattle a great 
factor in compacting the soil. Where fields can be pastured be- 
fore plowing for wheat, the double benefit is secured of adding 
fertility in the form of the manure produced, and compacting 
the soil. On virgin soils the practice is almost universal of pas- 
turing the wheat itself while the plants are young. Experience, 
however, does not show that pasturing wheat is an unmixed 
blessing. This is probably owing to the fact that stock is left 
on the ground when it is too wet, and, under these conditions, 
both wheat and fields are injured. Taking into account, on the 
other hand, the fact that this pasture is often worth a dollar an 
acre to the farmer as food for his stock, the yield of wheat need 
not be increased to make pasturing profitable. Spring pastur- 
ing seems less objectionable than fall, and many think it aids in 
reducing insect pests. Letters from twenty different Kansas 
farmers in regard to pasturing wheat, show eighteen out of 
twenty in favor of it, and they estimate the value at from fifty 
cents to three dollars an acre. 

Plowing for Wheat — In sections of our country where new 
soils are available and the land has not been cropped, the plow- 
ing for wheat should be shallow, only a few inches the first 
year, and increased from year to year until the desired depth is 
reached. An interesting fact about seeding on new soil is the 
length of time profitable crops may be grown without barnyard 
manure or fertilizers of any kind, and with no rotation of crops. 
In some instances wheat has followed wheat for ten or twelve 
years with no decrease in yield. One account tells of wheat 



94 FOR BETTER CROPS 

lodging and enovigh being, left on tlie ground to seed the entire 
field, and a heavy crop being Iiarvested the following season 
without the use of any implement until harvest time. Our 
country is fast approacliing the time when such tales will seem 
incredible. The countries of the old world will have to be our 
teachers to show us the secret of maximum yields on long 
cropped soils. 

Rotation of Crops — Many farmers follow the practice of 
seeding after corn where a tliree-year rotation of wheat, clover, 
and corn is followed. In any rotation, one great advantage is 
the fact that different crops make available different elements 
in the soil. For instance, manure applied to tlie corn crop is 
made available for the wheat crop that follows; and clover un- 
locks liidden treasures of the earth for crops that follow it. 

Corn fields that are to be seeded to wheat should be given as 
near absolutely clean culture as is possible, and laid by as late 
as the condition of the corn will permit. If tiiis is done, it 
will not be necessary, in ordinary seasons, to plow the land 
before seeding to wheat. Whether to seed in tlie standing corn 
or after it is shocked has been the subject of a number of 
experiments, and the conclusions are in favor of shocking the 
corn; as then the ground can be put in shape with the harrow 
or cultivator and the roller or drag, making a mellow, well 
stirred seed bed on the compacted corn ground below. 

Proper Tillage — Bearing in mind that the preparation of 
the seed bed for wheat is the only cultivation that can be given 
to insure a good crop, it is of the utmost importance that every- 
thing that will contribute to this end siaould be done. The 
maxim, "Tillage is manure," should also be kept in mind, and 
wliere stable manure is not abundant, the fact should be empha- 
sized tl:iat too much work cannot be done in preparing the wheat 
field. If a soil is kept fine for two months or more during the 
heat of summer, it becomes vitalized and enriched, so the seed 
truly falls on good ground and sometimes, brings forth if not 
"a hundred fold," an abundant crop. It is of the utmost 
importance that all work of preparing the seed bed be done at 
the best possible time. There are generally two or three days 
of cool weather after a rain, and this is the time when the 
teams should be kept busy early and late. Tlie land then works 
to the best possible advantage, and a team will work for twelve 
or fourteen hours with less strain than they will for eight hours 
wlien the ground is dry and liard and the mercury up in the 
nineties. Again, when pulverizing the land just before seeding, 
there are times when one day's work will accomplish more tlian 
tliree a little later. There is a time after each rain when the 
ground is in ideal condition, and the farmer can liarrow a large 
area in a day and put the land in the best condition to be 



FOR BETTER CROPS 95 

benefited in the highest degree by sun and air. Stirring the sur- 
facec hecks evaporation also. A few days' neglect, and alTthese 
advantages ar& lost, moisture is carried off, a crust forms, and 
the land becomes dry and cloddy. 

Drainage — Where land is not well drained, much good may 
often be accomplislied by opening with the plow little outlets, 
at every low place in the field, to prevent water standing on any 
part of it. Open furrows are not desirable in a wlieat field, as 
they may be troublesome in tlie use of machines or cause wash- 
ing, but they are better than an excess of water. As a farmer 
prospers, nothing should appeal to him more than tlie desira- 
bility of drainage, and as soon as possible the farm should have 
a complete system of underdrains. 

Many farmers believe that there is no fertilizer so valuable 
as stable manure. The Ohio experiment station has taken up 
this question as applied to the wheat crop. Tiiey have found 
that a ton of average farm manure taken from the open barn- 
yard, contains nine pounds of nitrogen, ten pounds of potassium 
and from three to four of phosphorus, a less proportion of phos- 
phosus than is usually needed on wheat land. Accordingly the 
experiment was tried of reinforcing the stable manure witli 
phosphorus, the material used being finely ground phosphate 
rock, known as "floats" and acid phosphates, using forty pounds 
of each to a ton of stable manure. This manure was spread on 
clover sod and plowed under for corn, wheat following the corn, 
and clover following the wheat in a three year rotation, no other 
fertilizer being used for the three crops. The results fully jus- 
tified the use of the phosphorus. Lands already brought to a 
state of average fertility, yielding fifty-seven bushels of corn per 
acre and eighteen of wheat, were still further improved by this 
addition of "floats" and phosphoric acid to the stable manure, 
producing sixty-two bushels of corn and twenty-four bushels of 
wheat to the acre. Stable manure that has not been exposed to 
the weather gives still better results when combined with these 
fertilizers — and applying it with a manure spreader will insure 
maximum results. 

Selection of Seed — The selection of seed wheat is an ever 
present problem. The long list of old and new varieties is 
bewildering, and the claims lor some of these are so enticing, that 
the farmer is perplexed to make a selection. A study of local 
conditions and varieties will often result in finding the best 
seed wheat near home, as wheat usually suffers more or less 
deterioration from change of locality. The points to be kept in 
mind in selecting a new variety are as follows : A full grain of 
good weight, stiff straw with ability to stand up in adverse 
weather, a compact liead ripening early and not liable to shat- 
ter, good bread quality, and power to resist insect enemies. A 



96 FOR BETTER CROPS 

variety that tillers freely has greater chances to escape desti'uc- 
tion at the hands of its enemies. 

The demands of the available market will determine whether 
to grow hard or soft wheat. In many sections of tlie country 
the hard wheat takes the lead, and mills are specially equipped 
for grinding it. The soil on which wheat is sown has been 
found to modify the character of the grain. Hard wheat sown 
from year to year on sandy soil gradually becomes softer, while 
the soft varieties taken from sandy soil and grown on uplands, 
become harder. As seasons change, and market demands alter, 
it may be necessary to modify the type of seed selected. It may 
take a series of years to establish the desired type, but when 
obtained, it will repay the effort expended. Where it is desired 





U 








^ 


ll^. 


Au . 




I. 


.JiMM 


_Jj 


/-" 


r^^- 


fe^ 


Bi'^S* 


^ 


. \ \ 


1 


^^^ ^^^^^ 




** 




i^ 


,\ 






igi^j^^^ 


lit 


likii 


4^ 


'wfy 


- 




III 


ViiiV 


mi^ii 


-«J IB Bl ' 






H^^^*'/ 




'^ 


s., .>- 


■IP 




iii|gM||^n||m 











The spring tooth harrow can be used to good advantaiie 

to test varieties from a distance, only a small area should be 
planted, and this, if successful, will furnish seed for a larger area 
the following year; while if unsuccessful, the smaller the plot 
the better. 

Quantity of Seed to Sow — After the seed wheat has been 
selected, the question naturally arises, how mucli seed shall be 
sown per acre? Individuals and experiment stations have been 
at work on this question for years. The conclusions are varied. 
In a series of experiments where eight test plots were seeded 
with from three to eight pecks per acre, the minimum yield was 
from three pecks and the maximum from five and a half, the 
variation in yield being over four bushels per acre. In a series 
of reports from farmers who operated large wheat farms, the 
amount of seed used was from three to eight pecks per acre. In 
a list of reports from twenty of these farmers, one used three 



FOR BETTER CROPS 



97 



pecks; eleven used four pecks; six used five pecks; one used six 
pecks; and one eight pecks. The average yield from these sow- 
ings was a little more than seventeen bushels per acre, the 
largest being twenty-eight bushels and the smallest ten. The 
highest yields were obtained where five pecks of seed were used 
and the lowest from four pecks. These are average yields for a 
series of years on good land, and show what farmers have actually 
done on a large scale. From the many experiments tried to 
determine what amount of seed to sow per acre to insure the 
largest yield, it has been found that on most soils five and one- 
half pecks give the maximum result. Heavier seeding may be 
necessary on worn-out soil, while four to four and one-half pecks 
will give an abundant yield on fertile land. 






The smoothing harrow adds the final toach of preparation 



Time of Seeding— After the preparation of the soil, the 
selection of seed, and the decision as to how much seed to sow 
per acre, comes the important question of time of seeding. 
Shall we sow early and court the ravages of insect pests? Shall 
we sow late and take the chances that growth will be suflflcient 
to carry the wheat through the perils of winter? No invariable 
rule can be laid down as to date of seeding, as weather conditions 
and other factors, over which man has no control, may determine 
the possibilities at seeding time. Much, however, can often be 
done to modify adverse conditions. In a time of drought, a 
thoroughly prepared seed bed with a well pulverized surface is 
of even more importance than under ordinary conditions; as the 
mellow soil at the surface acts as a mulch to retain moisture 
and prevents evaporation from below, and even a slight shower 
will put the soil in condition to receive the seed. If the land, 



98 FOB BETTER CROPS 

under such conditions, is only half prepared and seeded before 
sufficient rain has fallen, almost certain failure is courted. 

Long years of experience and observation seem to point to 
early seeding rather than late, as most often successful. Many 
of the experiment stations have prepared tables for their own 
states and made suggestions for exceptional seasons, giving 
approximate dates for sowing in each section of the state. In 
southeastern Ohio, from the 10th to the 20th of September 
usually gives the best results, though later dates are suggested 
in some seasons. 

Advantages of Using the Drill — Whether to sow our grain 
broadcast or with a drill is hardly a debatable question in recent 
years, the advantages in favor of the use of a good drill are now 
so well recognized. By means of the drill the seed is put in 
evenly, at a uniform depth; the fertilizer is placed just where 
it will be soonest available for the growth of the plant ; and 
the ground is left in small ridges between the rows. These 
ridges hold the snow so that often a light covering will protect 
the plant in the furrows. Another advantage from these ridges 
comes when the freezing and thawing of mild days causes the 
earth to crumble on the ridges and fall into the furrows around 
the roots of the wheat. Farmers who drag or roll their fields 
after drilling the wheat lose these advantages. All work of that 
kind should be done before seeding. 

Depth to Set Drill — The depth at which the drill should be 
set for wheat has been much discussed. If weather conditions 
could be foreseen, it would be the part of wisdom to seed deeply 
in dry weather, and nearer the surface in wet weather. Experi- 
ments in deep and shallow seeding show the best results from 
seed covered from one and a half to three inches. The following 
table shows the result of experiments conducted by the agricul- 
tural college at Lansing, Michigan, and emphasizes the advan- 
tages of shallow covering : 

Proportion of 
Depth Time in comiug up seed that grew 

i-inch 11 days I 

1 " 12 " ~ all 

2 inches 18 " i 

3 " 20 " i 

4 " 21 " i 

5 " 22 " I 

6 " 23 " i 

The report showed that the plants from deep sown wheat 
were weak. They had rooted deeply, and later put out a new set 
of roots near the surface and the stem below rotted off, leaving the 
plants to start a new growth from the second set of roots, which, 
of course, made them later and weakened them. This would 
not have been the case with wheat drilled at the proper depth. 



1 


1 inch 


2 


U to 2 in. 


3 


2Jin. 


4 


3 in. 


5 


3i in. 


6 


4 to 4i in, 



FOR BETTER CROPS 99 

Yield per Acre — Another table, taken from the report of 
the Kansas experiment station, not only shows the time of 
germination and proportion of seed that grew, but follows the 
crop to time of harvest and gives the yield per acre on six experi- 
mental plots. 

Plot No. Depth Stand Wt. per bu. Yield per acre, bus. 

Fair 60i lbs. 29.69 

Fairly good 60 lbs. 30.64 

Good 59i lbs. 31.55 

60 lbs. 30.45 

eOilbs. 30.51 

60 lbs. 29.91 

The agricultural department calls especial attention to the 
importance of drilling the rows of wheat east and west, in seed- 
ing wheat in semi-arid regions, as the prevailing winds will then 
drive the snow and dirt into and around the drills instead of 
out of them. From practical experiments this has been found 
to be a point of importance in other sections. Another reason 
for this practice is that rows running north and south receive 
the direct rays of the sun between the ridges, while in rows 
running east and west the ridges tend to shade the plants. It 
is not so much freezing that injures the wheat, but freezing and 
thawing to such a depth that the roots of the plant are dis- 
turbed, and anything that will check frequent thawing is bene- 
ficial. 

Enemies of Wheat — The story of the wheat plant would be 
incomplete without some reference to the enemies that attack 
the wheat from the time the seed is cast into the ground until 
the day it is used commercially. The wheat midge, Hessian fly, 
chinch bug, wheat plant louse, wheat straw worm, wheat bulb 
worm, army worm, andsawflies lie in wait for the growing plant, 
while smut and rust get in their deadly work and weevil invades 
the storage bins. 

How shall this host be combated ? Anything that can be done 
to start a vigorous growth in the fall will aid in keeping down 
these insect pests and protect the plant from ravages by fungus 
enemies. It is even better to ignore the possible ravages of the 
Hessian fly, and get an early vigorous growth on the wheat 
fields in the fall than to allow late sown plants to go into the 
winter with a sickly growth unable to withstand the vicissi- 
tudes of winter. By making the best possible seed bed, by the 
judicious use of stable manure and commercial fertilizers, by 
drilling the seed, by underdraining and a wise rotation of crops, 
the best conditions possible are secured for a vigorous growth 
of the wheat plant and consequent strength to resist its many 
enemies. 

Some enemies of the wheat crop have not been mentioned — 
in fact their name is legion — but many so seldom harm the crop 



100 



FOB BETTER CBOPS 



that time and space need not be given them. When hail and 
wind destroy the crops there is no remedy, unless insurance of 
crops should come to include these forms of destruction. And 
for insect enemies the best remedy after all is a thrifty plant. 
He who farms well will often escape injury, while his careless 
neighbor loses his crop. Intelligent farming is good farming, 
and only good farming is profitable farming. 

The Hessian Fly — Yet there are exceptional years when some 
enemy threatens the complete destruction of the wheat crop, 
and prompt measures must be taken to save it. In the case of 
attacks by the Hessian fly the plan has been suggested by the 
Ohio experiment station of making several sowings of wheat, 
the first one large enough to attract the full force of the Hes- 
sian fly, and thus save the later sowings from its ravages. The 




Drilling iii (he seed 



portion of the wheat that has been invaded by the fly and on 
which its eggs have been deposited, should then be plowed 
under. Others recommend sowing strips of rye around the 
wheat fields about the same date. They claim the fly will 
deposit its eggs on the rye, and the rye can then be turned 
under. In either case, whether plowing under wheat or rye, 
the plowing should be so thoroughly done that no ends of wheat 
or rye blades or of weeds can be seen, as these would form an 
avenue of escape for the buried insects. After plowing, the 
ground should be harrowed, and if necessary compacted with a 
roller, so that no larvae thus buried may survive as flies. Burn- 
ing of stubble is strongly advised by the experiment stations, 
where clover does not follow wheat, as in this way the fly will 
be destroyed in the " flax seed " stage. 

The fact that a season that is favorable for one pest is un- 
favorable for another is fortunate. In times of drought the 



FOR BETTER CROPS 101 

chinch bug gets in its injurious work; but let wet weather follow 
when a field is badly infested with these pests and various deadly 
fungus diseases appear and exterminate them for that season. 
Under certain conditions the Hessian fly also has its parasitic 
enemies which quietly and quickly reduce their numbers, thus 
doing swiftly and silently, the task man labors more clumsily to 
accomplish. 

Go-operation Among Farmers — Growing the same crop 
continuously over large areas tends to increase the insect pests. 
There sliould be co-operation among farmers in their efforts to 
subdue these enemies. The care and forethought of one farmer 
may be entirely undone by carelessness on adjoining farms. As 
intensive farming becomes more and more a necessity, more 
attention will be given to the extermination of insect enemies, 
and committees will unite in their warfare against them. 

Rust in Wheat — Rust is sometimes more injurious to wheat 
than its insect enemies. ' Years ago it was learned that certain 
plants were largely responsible for the spread of rust on wheat. 
The year book of the Department of Agriculture for 1904 gives 
an account of the discovery that the spores of barberry rust will 
spread to adjoining wheat fields; and so destructive is this rust 
that lav s were passed in some states requiring the destruction 
of barberry hedges. By this measure that particular form of 
rust was greatly reduced. A good many years before this was 
published by the Department of Agriculture, this fact came under 
my observation, and barberry bushes that were highly prized 
were sacrificed. These bushes had been brought from the old 
home in the east and were not only ornamental, but a tie 
between the old home and the new. Continued outbreaks of 
rust in wheat fields near these bushes led to the discovery 
that they were the cause of the trouble. Several years later the 
same rust appeared in a neighbor's fields and search brought to 
light the fact that birds had carried seed to a woodlot some 
distance from the original shrub, and these had grown into 
bushes that were again spreading this destructive rust. A 
peculiar fact about this rust on the barberry is tliat it does not 
injure the barberry plant, but does greatly injure the wheat 
plant, producing first a red rust on the blades and later a black 
rust. The great epidemics appear as red rust. If the season is 
moist the plants are overwhelmed by the rapid spread of this 
disease. In climates where the red rust on the wheat plants 
cannot withstand the winters but must be carried over on its 
host, the barberry bush, it is only necessary to get rid of the 
barberry bushes in order to eliminate its ravages, but where it 
lives over winter in the fields, the wheat is more or less infected 
each season. 



102 FOR BETTER CROPS 

Fungicidal treatment for rusts has so far proved of little 
value. The best work being done is the effort to produce rust 
resisting varieties through selection and hybridization. 

Treatment for Smut— Smut is more easily combated than 
some other pests that wheat is heir to. The infection is caused 
by the use of smutty seed, and not by smut spores in the soil. 
The smut makes its attack when the young wheat plant first 
pushes through the soil, as the spores are sown with the wheat 
and germinate at the same time. They live in the tissues of the 
plant and take enough nourishment from the parent plant to 
keep themselves alive, but they never entirely kill the wheat 
plant as the rusts do. They live with the wheat until maturity 
and deposit their spores on the ripened grain or replace the 
grain in the head of wheat according to the variety of smut 
that has attacked the plant. If smutty wheat can be treated 
with some chemical that will kill the spores and not injure the 
vitality of the wheat, the trouble may be easily met. One of the 
cheapest and surest remedies for smut is the application of a 
solution of formaldehyde, also known as formalin. This should 
be a forty per cent solution, and a pound used with forty-five 
gallons of water will treat one hundred bushels of wheat. The 
wheat should be spread out thin on a tight floor in barn or 
granary; after being well sprinkled, it should be covered with 
sacks to prevent too rapid drying. In a few hours it may be 
uncovered and stirred to assist in drying. The solution should 
come in contact with every grain. 

Many use the copper sulphate solution with success. One 
pound of copper sulphate dissolved in two and a half gallons of 
water is sufficient for ten bushels of wheat. If the wheat is 
shoveled over and over, the solution will reach each grain, and 
by keeping it moist for half an hour, the smut germs will be 
killed. When it is desirable to sow the wheat immediately after 
treating, lime or dust may be sprinkled on it half an hour after 
applying the sokition, and it may be sown at once. It must be 
taken into account, however, that soaking swells the grains, and 
the drill should be set accordingly, and a few quarts more of 
seed should be allowed per acre. 

The hot water treatment for smut is also successful. The 
wheat is placed in half tilled gunny sacks and immersed in tubs 
of water of 120 degrees Fahr. When the wheat has been thor- 
oughly warmed, it is taken out and drained for a few seconds, 
then immersed in another tub of water at a temperature of from 
130 to 135 degrees Fahr. It is a good plan to dip the wheat at 
once in cold water, as it will cool more quickly and the grains will 
not swell so much. The wheat should then be spread where it 
will dry quickly. The general use of these well tested remedies 
would make the existence of smutty wheat a rare occurrence. 



104 



FOR BETTEli CROPS 



Experiment Plots — Much has been done by the Department 
of Agriculture and the state experiment stations to aid the 
farmer. By long continued experiments and by spreading the 
information thus gained, many have reaped large benefit, but it 
is to be hoped that the time is not far distant when each 
community will have experiment plots of its own, and these 
centers will become nuclei of both scientific and intensive 
farming. 

Harvesting Wheat — In the story of the wheat field we have 
come to tlie time when the sound of the binder is heard in the 
land. Most farmers are wel prepared for this part of the work 
and modern machines are keeping up with the demands of the 
progressive farmer. Many farmers cut their wheat when it is 
too ripe and much loss results. It may be cut while the grain 
is still soft, so that it can be crushed between the thumb and 




Wheat in the shock 



finger, and while there is considerable sap in the straw. Early 
cutting adds also to the value of the straw and reduces the risk 
from storms. The sheaves bind together better and there is less 
opportunity for water to gain admittance. Another advantage 
is the fact that a larger amount of wheat can be stored in a 
given space if cut moderately green. The best hands for this 
work should attend to the shocking, as mucli damage may follow 
carelessness in this part of the work. If the cap sheaves are 
put on with the heads in the direction of the prevailing winds, 
they will be less apt to be blown off. If barn space is not suffi- 
cient to store wheat, it pays to erect sheds for this purpose. 
Much wheat has been damaged by being threshed too soon ; and 
leaving it out in the field is always a risk. 

Storing under Shelter — It is not only from the standpoint 
of safety for the wheat crop tliat it is best to store under shelter, 



FOB BETTER CROPS 



105, 



but it makes threshing- less of a problem, as it may be done later 
in the season when weather conditions are more endurable, while 
the straw can be stacked in or near the barn and utilized with 
less labor and trouble. When threshing is done in the field, and 
the straw left on the ground it must be burned or it becomes a 
nuisance by occupying valuable ground until decayed; or if 
spread on the fields is of comparatively little value. The waste 
of such by-products as this often materially reduces the income 
of the farmer. 

An estimate of the weight of the chaff and straw from a field 
of wheat can be made when the number of bushels of wheat is 
known, as for one hundred bushels of wheat there will be about 
six tons of straw and chaff. Of course, this proportion varies 
somewhat, but this is a general average. 



'%(^ 




It pays io build good stacks 



Wheat Straw — Wheat straw has several values to the farmer. 
In the early days cattle were often wintered on straw alone, to 
which they helped themselves from the stack. Needless to say 
tliat by spring they were in a forlorn condition, and many of 
them died from starvation. Farmers do not try such experiments 
now, as they know animals must have foods that will make a 
balanced ration. Straw, however, can be made an important 
part of such a ration. By sprinkling it daily with brine when 
placed before the stock, it will be readily eaten; but in connection 
with the straw some highly nitrogenous food, such as oil meal 
or bran must be given, and the animals will do almost as well as 
if fed on good hay. As this plan would be adopted as a matter 
of economy, it will be a question to settle mathematically whether 
It will pay better to sell hay and buy oil meal and mill stuff in 



106 FOR BETTER CROPS 

order to feed the straw, or to feed the hay and put the straw to 
other uses. The relative prices of hay and feed will determine 
this. The manure product becomes more valuable when animals 
are fed on bran, and this may have some weight in deciding on 
the winter ration. 

No farmer can afford to waste his straw, whether used as 
roughage for stock or not. It makes the cheapest and best 
bedding in the stable, both as an absorbent and to keep the 
stables clean. By using it liberally and removing it daily, both 
animals and stables will be clean and comfortable. 

In a berry growing section there is nothing better than straw 
for mulching the berry fields. Baled straw always commands 
the highest price, but that price is not always high enough to 
justify the farmer in selling this valuable by-product and re- 
moving it from the farm. 

Brau and Middlings — Two other important by-products of 
the wheat crop are bran and middlings. Bran contains a con- 
siderable amount of crude fibre, somewhat resembling that 
contained in straw. It thus furnishes a bulky food and is, at the 
same time, rich in protein, making it excellent to combine with 
a corn ration. The high price charged for bran has led the 
dealers to offer mixtures instead of the pure bran, but in our 
experience the stock quickly detect the difference, and some- 
times refuse altogether to eat it. As in most states there are 
laws requiring the dealer to state the contents of any mixtures 
he offers, it ought to be possible to get the pure article by insist- 
ing on having it. Middlings are especially valuable in building 
up healthy and muscular bodies in the case of hogs and horses, 
but perhaps bran ranks ahead of it for cattle. Middlings, so 
called, are also offered the farmer, being reground bran with 
something added to give weight. But in this case, too, the 
farmer should look for a pure food when buying. 

A Fascinating Story — The story of any crop from the seed 
back to the seed is fascinating. Every step is important from 
the preparation of the seed bed, its fertilization and culture, and 
the implements used, to the time when storing, marketing, and 
seeding again, have completed the circle. 

Success with haphazard methods will soon be a thing of the 
past. The American farmer has entered upon a scientific era 
"in which he will use, in so far as they meet his needs, all the dis- 
coveries of the laboratory, all the helps of the experiment 
stations and the Department of Agriculture, and all the improved 
methods and machines demanded by his farm operations. When 
this is done, the oft expressed fear that increasing populations 
will outstrip the supply of food will be seen to be groundless. 

Ample Food Supply Assured — This hopeful view is found- 
ed on investigations made by the Department of Agriculture and 



FOR BETTER CROPS 107 

published in its year book for 1909. Statistics of the yield per 
acre of wheat for periods of ten years each since 1806 showed a 
steady, though small increase of yield per acre. Using this as a 
basis of calculation, and ignoring the probable factors that will 
accelerate this rate, it showed that the bread supply will not 
only keep pace with the increase of population, but that in the 
year 1950 there will be a surplus of 200,000,000 bushels of wheat 
in the United States. That a large increase in the yield of 
wheat from one acre of land is possible, no one doubts; and the 
future surely promises also an increase over large areas in the 
yield from each acre of wheat, and an end to the low averages 
now so generally reported from all the wheat growing sections 
of our country. 




arm 



ower 



By L. W. Chase 

Professor of Agricultunil Engineering, University of Nebraska 




In the Hilly and Mountainous States, 

water which can be used for power is 
going- to waste. In the prairie states, 
wind which might be used as a power is 
abundant, in fact, to those who visit the 
regions only occasionally it is entirely too 
plentiful. The water for power is being 
wasted because it is not in the proper 
locality. It is confined to streams wliicli 
are so far from the homes where the 
power should be utilized that only a few 
are fortunate enough to use it. Wind 
for power is scattered all over the prairies, but it is irregular in 
its velocities and it takes such large quantities to develop only 
a small amount of power that the cost of the plant is great. 
Either water or wind are the cheapest powers possible, but in 
either case, the cost of a plant great enough to furnish power is 
sufficiently large to make them prohibitive to tiie farmer. 
Steam power can be used for everything on a farm, but the time 
required to start tl:ie outfit and the care it needs when once 
started prohibits its use on the farm for anything but very large 
units, so the most feasible automatic power left for the farmers 
is the internal combustion engine, the gasoline engine being the 
most common type. 

If the first salesmen of gasoline engines had known as much 
about their stock in trade wlien they introduced the new motor 
power, and if the public to whom they were endeavoring to sell 
their goods had known as much about tliem at that time as tliey 
do now, gasoline engine manufacturing would not have received 
such a cool reception as the general public gave it after only a 
few engines had been tried. It is a failing of human nature 
that wherever there is a wlieel to turn, everybody must try to 
turn it. Likewise everybody is desirous of having a motive 
power to do his work wiiicli runs of its own accord and needs no 
feeding, no currying, no harnessing, no cleaning, no firing, and 
in short, practically no care. When the gasoline engine first 
came into the market the dealers came out witli just such extra- 
vagant claims; they had just what everybody wanted, an engine 

108 



FOR BETTER CROPS 



109 



always sure to run; you had simply to throw in the switch, open 
the throttle, j^ive the wheels a half turn, and it was off. But if 
it was off, it was usually for a few times only, and then the 
trouble began. And why the trouble? For no other reason than 
that the operator didn't know the principles of his machine. 
He hadn't been told that the charge of gasoline had to be diffused 
into a very weak gas, tliat this gas had to be compressed to 
about GO pounds per square inch before it would ignite, that If 
the gas contained too much gasoline it would not explode, and a 
number of other little things which are iiecessary to make an 
automatic motor. 




Sprayini^ fruit trees 



But Long Before This Time the dealer has learned that he 
must know his machine by heart, must know tlie internal as 
well as external workings. Not only must he know his own 
machine, but he must also know his competitors'. But what of 
all this knowledge on the part of the dealer? Does it help the 
farmer? It certainly does, for because of this information which 
the dealer has thrown out, the farmer takes a much broader 
view of an engine. He knows it is a success if properly handled 
and in many instances he knows the principles of the machine. 
And if he does not know the principles, he admits his Ignorance 



110 FOR BETTER CROPS 

and sets to learning them. The gasoline engine has come to be 
looked upon as a necessity, and all men are now desirous of 
learning, along with the fundamental principles of the machine, 
the more Intricate details. 

Today most farmers have learned that a gasoline engine is an 
automatic machine when properly handled, but that if it is not 
handled very carefully, it will behave worse than the proverbial 
mule. If the farmer himself does not know that a four cycle 
engine requires a suction stroke, a compression stroke, an 
expansion stroke, and an exhaust or clearance stroke, before the 
cycle of gases is complete, his son is quite apt to, so what is the 
difference — it is all in the family. This same son knows that the 
charge which is drawn into the engine must be of the proper 
mixture, he knows that the charge must be compressed to the 
proper number of pounds per square inch or it will not explode. 
He knows that ignition must take place a certain distance 
before the piston reaches dead center in order to get the proper 
power from the cliarge, and he knows that the burnt charge 
must be removed from the cylinder before a new charge is taken 
in. These four fundamentals of a gasoline engine lie knows, 
and he also knows that if any one of these is off, the engine will 
not run. 

Not Dangerous — Some say that gasoline engines are danger- 
ous because they will explode. This is an erroneous idea. 
Gasoline engines do explode, or at least should explode about 
150-300 times per minute, and there has been far more trouble 
caused because they do not explode than because they do explode. 
Gasoline itself will not explode. If you do not believe it, till 
a bottle full of the liquid and hold a match to it. You do not 
need to scringe or blink; it will do nothing but slowly burn, 
throwing off a yellowish blue flame. It is not the gasoline 
which explodes and does harm, but it is the gasoline vapors 
which have escaped into the open air that explode. Take a pint 
fruit jar and drop about ten drops of gasoline into it. Stir the 
air up within the jar, then turn the jar over and hold a match 
to the mouth. A small explosion occurs — and this is what 
happens every time a charge of gas explodes in the engine, and 
also every time gasoline vapors are ignited in a room. Roughly 
it takes 1,700 to 2,000 times its own volume of air mixed with 
gasoline to make it explode. Try exploding the charge of gaso- 
line vapor in the fruit jar once more, but this time put in 
about twenty-five drops of gasoline instead of ten. Some men 
act upon the principle that if a little is a good thing, more is 
better. If we got a small explosion with ten drops of gasoline, 
we ought to get a large explosion with twenty-five drops. Ignite 
the charge and see. It doesn't explode — simply burns with a 
slow flame as long as the jar is turned over. Set the jar up 




Ill 



112 FOR BETTER CROPS 

straight and the flame dies out. This is an instance where a 
little is good, and where more is not so good, and too much is 
worse than none. The second charge did not explode because 
there was too much gasoline in the jar to unite with the air 
in a proportion which would make an explosion. It only made 
an inflammable gas, which is entirely too slow for a gasoline 
engine. 

Apply the above principle to a gasoline engine and you will 
have the cause of fifty per cent of the troubles of the amateur. 
lie unconsciously floods his fengine, and after working over it for 
an hour or so trying to start it, goes away in disgust. Perhaps 
in an hour or so, some one comes along who gives it a try and it 
starts right off. The reason for this is that the first man flooded 
the engine with gasoline, and as it would not start, he kept on 
flooding it. But when he left the engine the vapors within the 
cylinder deteriorated or passed off in some way, so when the next 
man came along the mixture of gasoline and air were of such 
consistency that the engine started at once. 

It is always better to have the needle valve open too small a 
distance than too large a distance, then if the engine does not 
start the first time the wheel is thrown over, close the needle 
valve, hold open the inlet valve, and turn the wheels around a 
time or two. This will clear the cylinder of the previous un- 
burnt charge so that the try can be made again without danger 
of flooding. 

Ignition — The ignitor of a gasoline engine is a simple affair 
when one understands its principle. Batteries will generate 
current only when there is a complete circuit. Set a cell out by 
itself and nothing goes on within it until some metallic substance 
is placed across the binding posts. If you hold one end of a wire 
on the zinc binding post and then snap the other end across the 
carbon, a few sparks and smoke will be thrown off. This shows 
that a circuit has been made and that a current was set up in the 
system. A series of cells connected together, zinc to carbon, 
zinc to carbon, and so on until the last cell is connected to the 
first, form one big cell, or as it is commonly called, a battery. 
Instead of connecting the last cell to the first, connect it to 
some bright spot in the engine, and from another bright spot 
on the engine connect a wire to the first cell. It will be noticed 
that a circuit is again made, the engine acting as a part of the 
wire. Now cut one of the wires leading from the battery to the 
engine and connect the ends of the severed wire to the binding 
posts of tiie spark coil and again snap the wire across the cell. 
A much more brilliant spark is made than before. The coil 
acts as a booster, and is essential in all igniting systems. Take 
one of the wires connected to the engine and connect it to the 
binding post of the ignitor, then snap the wire in the battery 



FOR BETTER CROPS 



113 



and it is found that no spark is made. This is because the 
binding post in the ignitor is insulated from the engine. Swing 
tlie trip on the ignitor around until you feel it strike something 
on the inside of the engine, then snap the wire across the bat- 
tery, and again the spark is made. This is because the movable 
part of the ignitor has come in contact within the engine with 
the insulated binding post, and a circuit is made through the 
inside of the engine. Leave botli wires connected to the bat- 
tery and snap the trigger on the ignitor, and you make a spark 
within the engine the same as you did on the battery wlien you 
held the trigger around so that contact was made through the 
inside of the engine. If you do not believe this, take the ignitor 
out and lay it on some bright part of the engine and try it. 
While you have the ignitor out put some water between the 




Filling the silo 

points and then snap it and see if you get a spark. You do not, 
because the water bridges the gap between the points, and being 
a conductor of electricity, the circuit is not broken. Put some 
oil between the points and try it. No spark is made in this 
case because the oil is a non-conductor of electricity, and the 
circuit was not made, hence could not be broken. 

These illustrations show that if a non-conductor gets between 
the points of the ignitor a spark is not made, and if a conductor 
gets across the points a spark is also not made, hence it is abso- 
lutely essential that the ignitor and all binding posts be kept 
clean, and the latter must be kept tight. 

Since gasoline gas does not burn instantly, ignition should 
take place some time before the piston reaches dead center. 
This point is generally determined by the position of the crank 
and the speed of the engine. A slow speed engine should ignite 



114 FOR BETTER CROPS 

when the crank is about 10 degrees below center, while some 
extremely high speed engines should ignite about 70 degrees 
below or before dead center. This latter applies more especially 
to automobile engines. 

The farmer who knows the principle of the action of the 
gases in his engine and understands his ignitor, will have no 
troubles other than those which come up because of wear and 
poor adjustment or lack of care, and these troubles he must 
learn to adjust as they come about. 

A Comparison — Men who are driven will sulk, will complain, 
and finally strike, but few will ever overwork. A horse will work 
on, no matter how much he is required to do and no matter how 
badly he is crippled up. A steam engine is like ahorse — it can 
be overworked to its detriment — and if it gets out of order it 
will run on just the same until it is practically ruined. A gas- 
oline engine is like a man — if it is overtaxed it quits, and if it 




Husking and shredding fodder 

i3 out of order it will not run. It is like a man in another 
respect . It is always ready to start, does not have to be drive 
in from the pasture; neither does an hour's time need to be 
wasted to get its motive power in the proper condition to use. 
Furthermore, it is not dangerous when handled either by ex- 
perts or novices. It will not run away, it will not kick, nor will 
it explode its boiler. 

Men have been known to say that horse labor is cheap, and 
some men believe it is. But can they prove it ? Transfer com- 
panies in the prairie states make the claim that it costs $125 per 
year to feed a horse. Of course these horses are all work horses, 
and most of the time they work. The Minnesota experiment 
station has proven that it costs approximately $80 to maintain 
a farm horse for a year, and the horse only returns about three 
hours' work per day for this, which makes the cost of his services 
to the farmer amount to about eight cents per hour. In addition 
to this must be counted the depreciation, interest, and taxes. 



FOB BETTER CROPS 



115 



With gasoline at 20 cents per gallon, and with a very extrava- 
gant engine, it sliould not cost more than two and a half cents 
per hour for each horse power used. The interest, taxes, and 
depreciation would be about the same as for a horse when in 
use, but when not in use the engine does not depreciate and tlie 
horse does. Again, when not in use, the engine does not eat 
anything, while the horse eats nearly as much as wlien in use. 

It is quite difficult to compare the cost of using the horse 
with the use of gasoline engines, as neither one is ever used all 
the time, but it may be of interest to make an attempt at the 
exact figures. 

What the Tests Show— The department of agricultural 
engineering at the University of Nebraska has made tests of 
pumping with a 3-horse power gasoline engine and found that it 
takes one gallon of gasoline to pump 2,454.5 gallons of water from 
a well 43 feet to water, and that one gallon of gasoline will pump 




Salving vrood 



l,720gallons of water from a well 159 feet to water. A gallon of 
gasoline should pump sufficient water from a well 43 feet deep to 
supply 300 head of cattle 24 hours, and it should pump sufficient 
water from a well 160 feet deep to supply 215 head of cattle 24 
hours. The same engine referred to above shelled 28 bushels of 
corn in 26 minutes and used .105 part of a gallon of gasoline. 
This shows that one gallon of gasoline will shell 264 bushels of 
corn. 

The men, in making this test, did not stop with shelling the 
corn, but kept on and ran the corn through a feed grinder at 
the rate of 29i bushels an hour, and found that a gallon of gaso- 
line would grind 48.6 bushels of corn sufficiently fine for good 
feed. 

These same men found that it took .0893 gallons of gasoline 
to run the engine empty for one hour, or .001489 of a gallon to 
run the engine one minute. It takes about one minute to sep- 
arate one cow's milk, and requires about ^g-horse power to run 



116 FOR BETTER CROPS 

the separator. Small gasoline engines use about a gallon of 
gasoline plus the amount used by the engine to do one horse 
power's work for ten hours. Computing from this it is found 
that it takes about .00011 part of a gallon of gasoline to do the 
work separating one cow's milk. Add this to the amount of 
gasoline used (.001489) to run the engine one minute, and the 
sum is the amount used (.001589 galls.) separating the milk 
of one cow with a 3-horse engine and a 740 pound separator. 

Strange as it may seem, it should take only about .32 of a 
gallon of gasoline to separate the milk from 100 cows for 24 
hours, which at 20 cents per gallon would cost only 6.4 cents. 




Grinding feed 

It takes about j'g-horse power to run a common hand grind- 
stone, which means that it takes .958 part of a cent to grind a 
sickle. If it takes 30 minutes to grind a sickle, and farm help 
now costs approximately 25 cents per hour, it costs 12.5 cents 
for a man to turn the grindstone while the sickle is being 
ground. 

Other Work for the Engine — Saving a woman's labor on a 
farm is an item which should not be overlooked when consider- 
ing a farm power plant, and this is especially true of tlie weekly 
washing. When the washing machine is run by hand it takes 
about five minutes of turning for each waslier full of clothes. 



FOR BETTER GROFti 117 

and there are generally about six washers full. This means 
that the machine is run about 30 minutes for a washing, and 
takes about .0178 part of a gallon of gasoline. This is not the 
amount which is generally used, for the washing machines are 
run about twice as long when they are motor driven as when 
hand driven, and get the clothes correspondingly cleaner. 

In short, the following table shows about the gasoline used 
for the various purposes about the farm with a 3-horse power 
gasoline engine. Some of the figures are from actual tests and 
some are computations : 

One gallon of gasoline will pump 

2,454 gallons of water from well 43 feet deep. 

1,720 gallons of water from well 159 feet deep. 

Will shell 

264 bushels of corn. 

Will grind 

48.6 bushels of corn. 

Will separate the milk from 

300 cows. 

Will do about 

20 weekly washings without wringing. 

Will grind about 

20 sickles and 

If harvester is pulled by horses, will cut about 

4 acres of grain. 

The limit of usefulness of a gasoline engine on a farm depends 
upon the ingenuity of the farmer. Besides the subjects men- 
tioned, it should be made to cut the ice, put it in the ice house, 
put the hay in the barn, the corn in the crib, cut the alfalfa, 
the ensilage, do the threshing, sharpen the plows and the disks, 
sweep the floors of the house, saw the wood, light the buildings, 
and do many other kinds of work. 

Size of Engine — What size of engine to purchase depends 
entirely upon the farm and farmer. On the whole, it seems 
that most farmers are purchasing too small an engine, and over- 
looking the medium sizes. A good 4 or 5-horse power engine will 
do anything on the farm, except thresh or fill the silo, and do 
it as economically as a large engine which would require a 
large force to keep it supplied with work. This same engine 
will do all the small work about the farm, and requires only a 
trifle more gasoline for the work than a 1 or 2-horse power 
engine. 

With modern machines and a good gasoline engine a farmer 
should use his mental ability in such a way that he and his 
farm hand can do all his work, and then thereby drop the old 
time shelling bee and threshing day. By stacking the grain 



118 



FOR BETTER CROPS 



and using a small separator, a farmer can choose his own time 
to thresh, and by tliat means keep a good hand who would 
otherwise be lost. This method of doing the work will also 
take a burden from his wife's siioulders, because she will not 
need to cook for such a large number of extra men as is usual 
at threshing time. Whenever a farmer gets a gasoline engine 
he should arrrange'to do without an equivalent value of horse 
flesh or man labor. 




Operating the cream separator 



The Gasoline Tractor — The matter of substituting a trac- 
tion engine for horses now depends upon three things to make 
it a success. 

First : The size, arrangement, and topography of the farm. 

Second : The conditions of roads and bridges leading to town, 

and. 

Third : A man's ability to handle his work so that he can 
substitute oil and steel for man and horse. 

The farmer who has a farm which is fairly level and laid 
out in long fields can plow the fields and seed them with a trac- 
tion engine cheaper than with horses. 



FOR BETTER CROPS 



119 



With large wagons, good roads and bridges, a man can deliver 
his produce in town with a traction engine as cheap and prob- 
ably cheaper than with horses. 

A modern farmer must not only be able to select good seed, 
sow it scientifically, and feed the harvested crop scientifically, 
but he must be able to sow, till, harvest, and handle the 
crops economically. To do this he must be an engineer 
as well as an agriculturist in every sense of the word. One 




Pumping w^ater 

of the greatest losses on the modern farm today is through 
poor handling of labor, machines, horses, and improper arrange- 
ment of buildings. A great part of these losses is the feeding 
of several horses for ten months in the year to do a few weeks 
work, and the farmer must learn to arrange his work to utilize 
the services of his horses all the year around, or he must 
arrange his work for the efficient use of a gasoline engine. The 
latter appeals to the writer as a more feasible plan and one 
which the best farm management is slowly but surely adopting. 






Profitable Hay Making 

THE SEEDING— THE GROWING CROP— BEST METHODS 
OF CURING HAY 



By Professor Thomas Shaw 

Formerly of the Minnesota Experiment Station, St, Anthony Park, Minn. 




The Corn Crop— The United states 
stands first in the popular estimate. 
This estimate is based on the fact that 
the corn crop far exceeds, in direct cash 
value, any other single crop grown in the 
United States. In 1910 the farm value 
of the corn crop was $1,523,968,000. The 
hay crop is second, with a farm value of 
$747,769,000. Wheat ranks third, with a 
farm value of $621,443,000. 

That corn is king among farm crops, 
to use a popular phrase, would be apparent 
from the above figures. But it is only apparent. The grass crop 
is the most important crop that the United States produces, and 
may continue to be so through all time. That such is the fact 
may readily be shown. Let it be observed: 

1. That the estimated value of the grass crop included only 
hay, while it is undoubtedly true that the pasture crop is more 
valuable by a large margin than the hay crop, because of the 
immense area in pasture. Add these values, and the cash value 
of the grass crop will exceed that of the corn. 

2. The corn crop has cost much more to produce than the 
hay crop, hence the net profit from growing the hay would 
approximate much more nearly the net profit from growing corn 
than the maximum value of the former does that of the latter. 

3. The full value of the hay to the farmer is not shown by 
its commercial value in the matured form. While the grasses 
have been growing into arable farms where rotation is practiced, 
they have been storing the ground with their roots, which, along 
with the stubbles, when the meadows are broken up, furnish 
humus for the growing of other crops. Those leguminous in 
character always in addition leave the ground richer than they 
found it in nitrogen, and nitrogen is the costly element of 
fertility. 

The indirect value of the hay crop to the farmer can not be 
stated in figures. But it would not be extravagant to say, that 

120 



FOR BETTER CROPS 121 

all things considered, it would not be much less than the market 
value of the hay. 

In the absence of grass, the humus supply in the land can not 
so well be maintained in any other way, which means that with- 
out it, land can not be kept for a considerable term of years in a 
proper mechanical condition. Without the grass crop, weeds 
can not be so readily kept under control, nor can the diseases 
that affect grain crops be so readily kept at bay. In its absence, 
some soils blow and others are carried away by the action of 
water, which may fall in the form of rain or snow. In its 
absence, live stock can not be maintained on the farm without 
undue expense, and consequently, in its absence mixed farming 
will be impossible. Beyond all question, grass is king among 
the crops of the farm in the United States and so it will con- 
tinue to be. 

Meadow in the Rotation In the absence of the grass crop, 

true rotation in the sense of resting and renovating land, is not 
possible without undue expense. To change from one cereal 
crop to another in the rotation does not rest or renovate land 
unless the cereal grown is a legume. Growing these crops in 
alternation has some advantages over growing only one in 
unchanging succession, especially when one of these, as corn for 
instance, is made a cleaning crop, but all of these, except the 
pea crop, draw upon practically the same elements of fertility 
in the land. 

The frequency with which the hay crop should be introduced 
into the rotation depends upon conditions such as relate to soil, 
climate, the character of the hay crop grown, and the object for 
which it is grown. 

Where the soil conditions are such that in conjunction with 
the climatic conditions, a stand of grass can be reckoned on with 
much certainty, the introduction of the grass crop should be 
quite frequent in the rotation. The aim should be, as a rule, to 
grow not more than three crops of grain between the grass crops. 
In this way the land may be adequately supplied with humus. 
With great propriety the grass crop may precede such crops as 
corn and potatoes, and if the sod has been manured with farm- 
yard manure before plowing it, the conditions are just to that 
extent improved. Under the conditions named, the plan is good 
which cuts two crops of mixed hay, followed by one season of 
pasturing. This in time is followed by a cultivated crop, and 
after the cultivated crop, two crops of cereals. 

Wherever the rainfall is large and the temperature warm, it 
would be better to aim to grow only two crops of cereals between 
the grass crops, because of the quick decay of humus. But where 
the rainfall is light, and the atmosphere of a character which 
retards the decay of humus, as in the northwestern states, in 



122 FOR BETTER CROPS 

many instances lour crops of grain may come between the grass 
crops without too quickly depleting the land of the hurauD 
supply. 

If the hay crop grown should be a legume, as for instance red 
clover, then the most profitable rotation is clover cut twice in 
one season, a cultivated crop as corn or potatoes next season, 
and a cereal crop seeded to clover the third season. Such a 
rotation is unrivaled for the maintenance of maximum produc- 
tion in crops. 

But there may be instances when it is not desirable to rotate 
hay crops. Certain soils have special adaptation to growing 
hay, and they may be so situated that hay crops grown upon 
tiiem are more remunerative than other crops; such are re- 
claimed tide lands by the sea, and in some instances river bot- 
tom lands subject or not subject to overflow. 

In some cases hay is so dear relatively that it is more profit- 




Harvesting the hay crop 

able to keep the land growing hay for successive years when 
once a good stand has been obtained. The production in tlie 
crop is then maintained by applying artificial fertilizers. In 
otiier instances good crops may be grown for a long term of 
years without fertilizers, as wlien certain marsh lands have been 
reclaimed, and yet in other instances a certain hay crop may 
have so high an adaptation to certain soils, that it may produce 
many successive crops of hay without injury to the land, such 
as tlae alfalfa crop. 

Mixed Grasses for Hay — Some grasses grow best alone. 
This may arise from inability to cope with other grasses, as in 
the case of alfalfa; hence, except under peculiarly favorable con- 
ditions, the aim is to grow alfalfa alone. Or, it may arise from 
the greatly aggressive character of these grasses, which enables 
them soon to crowd out other grasses. Such are Johnson grass, 
grown in the south, Bermuda grass also grown there, Kentucky 
blue grass, which grows over almost the entire United States 



FOR BETTER CROPS 123 

save in the semi-arid west, quack grass which is widely scat- 
tered over farms in the northern central and eastern states, and 
which persists iri growing where it is not desired. Johnson 
grass and quack grass yield well, but both are so persistent in 
their growth that they should never be sown. Bermuda and 
Kentucky blue grass have far higher relative adaptation for 
pasture than for hay, hence they should only be sown or planted 
for pasture. 

The three grasses, timothy, Russian brome, and western rye 
grass or slender wheat grass, as it is sometimes called, may be 
grown with other grasses, but for certain reasons, are very fre- 
quently sown alone. 

Timothy is the most valuable of all grasses. It stands ship- 
ping best. It has highest adaption to the needs of horses, partly 
on account of its composition, and partly because of its freedom 
from dust. For these reasons it is very frequently grown alone. 




The side delivery rake makes neat tvindroM-s 

Russian brome grass is frequently grown alone in the Dakotas 
and the northwestern provinces of Canada, because of its high 
relative adaption to the conditions found there. For a similar 
reason western rye grass is sown alone in the same areas, and 
more particularly where the conditions are driest in the same. 

More commonly, however, hay is sown in mixtures The 
following are among the chief reasons for sowing it thus : 

1. Larger yields are obtained. 

2. Usually such hay has a wider adaption for feeding than 
is possessed by any one variety. 

3. It is frequently more easily cured than if grown alone. 
Experience has shown that in growing plants in certain com- 
binations, larger yields may be obtained than when they are 
grown singly. This is owing to the fact, doubtless, that in mix- 
tures they more completely occupy the soil, and to the further 
fact, that each draws most heavily on its own proper food ele- 
ments in the soil, hence more plant food is appropriated by the 



124 



FOR BETTER CROPS 



combination than could be appropriated by any single plant. 
Because of the difference in the analysis of plants thus grown 
together, they have a wider adaptation than if grown alone. 
Timothy, for instance, has high adaptation for horses, but low 
adaptation for sheep. Clover has high adaptation for sheep 
and unless when entirely free from dust, low adaptation for 
horses ; whereas, a mixture of clover and timothy answers well 
for almost every liind of feeding to the domestic animals of the 
farm. 

The prejudice to a limited amount of bright, well cured 
clover in timothy fed to horses, is not well founded. When 
clover is grown alone it is sometimes difficult to cure. When 
grown along with such grasses as timothy or orchard grass, it 
cures more quickly and easily, since the curing, or rather the 
lieeping qualities of the clover is favorably influenced by admix- 
ture with grasses which cure thus quickly. 




A typical Western hay field 

The most common mixture of grasses is medium red clover 
and timothy. These are peculiarly adapted to produce hay most 
desired on the farm. They grow well together on the same 
land. The timothy helps to sustain the clover and the clover 
improves tlie cliaracter of the hay for feeding, and when it dies 
the dead roots nourish the timothy. In such a mixture clover 
will predominate the first season of harvesting the crop for hay, 
and timothy the next year. 

This mixture has high adaption for all the northern states 
and several of the provinces of Canada, also for certain areas 
west of the Rocky Mountains and in the irrigated valleys of the 
Rockies. In these areas the yields may be improved upon by 
sowing timothy, medium, mammoth, and alsike clover in com- 
bination. 

In the central states, with Kansas as a center, orchard grass, 



FOR BETTER CROPS 



125 



meadow fescue, and Russian brome grass may figure largely in 
the grasses of the meadow. 

In the upland areas of the northern plateaus of the western 
mountains, orchard grass, meadow fescue, Russian brome, and 
tall oat grass have given satisfaction. In the south, one of the 
best combinations is orchard grass, tall oat grass, and in some 
instances timothy. 



The Legumes as Hay Crops — Leguminous crops are those 
that produce their seeds in sacs or pods. They ara all possessed 
of the power to draw nitrogen from the air in the process of 
growth and to store it in the soil, where it is accessible to crops 
that immediately follow. This power to appropriate nitrogen 
not in the soil is doubtless one reason why legumes are so rich in 
protein. Protein is the element in foods which is chiefly used in 
making muscle and milk, for other than legumes are largely used 




The trork of stacking made easy 

in the production of heat and energy. Unless these foods are fed 
indue balance, animals can not be so cheaply grown, so perfectly 
grown, or so well maintained. 

Three reasons will always exist for the growing of legumes. 
The first is that they must be grown if foods are to be fed 
in balance. The second is that nature unaided does not furnish 
them in anything like the same abundance as it furnishes many 
of the grasses proper. The third is because of the great service 
they render in the enrichment of the land. Of so much account 
are they in the animal and vegetable world that it behooves the 
farmer to give special attention to their abundant growth in the 
rotation. 

Young animals, especially, must be abundantly supplied with 
muscle-making material. This explains why the clovers furnish 
more suitable food for them than the grasses proper. Likewise 



126 FOR BETTER CROPS 

cows and other animals which provide milk can not do so in the 
absence of liberal supplies of protein. This explains why good 
clover hay is better adapted for milk production than good corn 
stover. There is, of course, some protein in grasses and coarse 
fodder, but there is not enough to supply the needs of the classes 
of animals named. It must be supplied from some other source, 
and there is no source of supply so cheap ordinarily as that which 
furnishes protein by growing it on the farm. 

Nature does not furnish foods, nitrogenous in character, with 
anything like the same abundance that it does foods that are 
carbonaceous. All the grasses, many of which take possession of 
the soil unaided as it were, are relatively low in protein as com- 
pared with legumes. Nature covered the original prairies with 
grasses, not legumes. When the forest is cut away, blue grass 




Follo^<rinft the mower 

comes in and possesses the soil. Nature never covers the land 
with legumes. The nearest approach to such a covering is found 
in the more or less abundant growth of wild pea vines scattered 
amid the native grasses, and particularly on lands more or less 
covered with brush in the American and Canadian northwest. 

All the grains which grow in the north are non-leguminous, 
except peas, vetches, and beans, and the same is true of those of 
the south except cow peas, soy beans, and velvet beans. 

The only leguminous root crop, strictly speaking, that fur- 
nishes food for live stock, is the peanut. All the coarse fodders, 
as corn, sorghum, and the non-saccharine sorghums are non- 
leguminous. True, flax in the north and cotton-seed meal in the 
south are relatively rich in protein. So are the by-products of 
wheat, as bran and shorts, but none of these is a legume. Where 
live stock is to be kept, therefore, the need is imperative for grow- 
ing a sufficiency of protein, and in no way can it be more cheaply 



FOR BETTER CROPS 



127 



furnished than by growing- legumes, and more especially in tlie 
form of hay. 

But the great service that legumes render to the soil furnishes 
an important reason lor growing them freely. Red clover grown 
on soil will furnish a crop of hay and also of seed in one season, 
and will leave the ground richer in nitrogen tlian when the 
crop was sown. Peas, vetches, cow peas, and soy beans may be 
allowed to mature and tlae vines and seed may both be removed 
and yet tlie land will be richer in nitrogen than it was previously. 
Should alfalfa, clovers, and the otlier legumes mentioned be fed 
on the land, it will be apparent that the process will exert a 
favorable influence in building up the soil. Of course, when 
these crops are sold, it may be necessary to supply the soil with 
additional phosphoric acid and potash. 









m^.'"^,..^:€^A^6>, \ i^ 





The hay tedder 



Climatic Adaptation for Legumes — While legumes of one 
species or another may be grovv'n in all the states of the Union, 
these differ greatly in their adaptation to the climatic conditions. 

Alfalfa has more general adaptation than any other legume 
grown on this continent. It can be grown with more or less 
success in portions of every state in the Union where the soil 
conditions are right. Although, by far, the most abundant 
yields are obtained from it when grown under irrigation, never- 
theless it is well adapted to areas that have but little humidity. 
It may be grown on suitable soils where the rainfall is not less 
than 10 inches per annum, and where the precipitation averages 15 
Inches, good crops may be grown. Without any irrigation, these 
should yield on an average not much less than two tons per acre 
per year. This means that alfalfa will be the principal hay 
crop through all time for all the region west of the Mississippi 
river, and east of the Cascade mountains. 



128 FOR BETTER CROPS 

The three leading varieties of clover; iz. the common red, 
the mammoth, and the alsike, all grow relatively lietter under 
humid conditions than under those that are dry. It would 
seem safe to say that clover cannot be grown at its best when 
the annual precipitation is much less than 20 inches. This 
means that in the absence of irrigation these clovers will not 
give returns equal to those obtained from alfalfa in all the area 
which lies west of the meridian 100", and east of the meridian 
120". Crimson clover which is an annual, has highest adapta- 
tion for the Atlantic and southern states. Japan clover is 
frequently grown for hay in the southern states, but the yields 
obtained from it are relatively small. 

Vetches have highest adaptation for climates that are moist. 
The best climatic conditions, therefore, for vetches are found 
on the Pacific slope west of the Cascades, in proximity to the 
great lakes, and in the Atlantic and southern states. No better 
hay crops can be obtained along the Pacific coast than those 
obtained from vetches. The sand vetch, however, will grow 
relatively better with but moderately humid climatic condi- 
tions. 

The cow pea and the soy bean cannot be grown at their best 
much farther north than the parallel 40°. They call for a 
longer and a warmer season than is usually found north of the 
parallel named, but they can be grown for hay much farther to 
the north than for the grain. Where the climatic conditions 
become less favorable for the growth of these plants, they be- 
come more favorable for the growth of the Canada field pea, 
which grows at its best north of the parallel named. 

Soils for Producing Hay Crops — The question of soil 
adaption in growing hay is one of great significance. A grass 
or clover that may flourish well on one kind of soil may utterly 
fail on another. Climate adaption is also important, but that 
has already been touched upon. 

The highest adaption for alfalfa is found in the volcanic ash 
soils of the west. These are more or less sandy in character, 
and if they are underlaid with sheet water within a few feet of 
the surface, the adaption is further Increased. Next to these 
come clay loam soils of mild texture and underlaid with clay 
not dense in character. Wet and marshy lands are quite un- 
suitable. On many soils alfalfa will not succeed well until 
inoculated with the bacteria essential to its growth. This is 
most easily done by sowing 200 to 300 pounds of earth over the 
land that has been obtained from a field in which alfalfa is 
growing vigorously. 

Medium red clover has soil adaption a good deal similar to 
that of alfalfa, but it will flourisii in a shallower soil, as it feeds 
less deeply, and also in a soil with watery saturation which 



FUli BETTER CROPS 129 

comes nearer to the surface. Red clover is almost certain to 
grow well on soils that will produce hard wood timber, and 
usually without inoculation. It generally grows well also on 
the average prairie soil where climatie conditions are suitable, 
but these may in some instances require inoculation with soil 
taken from a field in which red clover has recently been grown, 
or is growing when the soil is obtained for such a use. 

Alsike clover has high adaption for humus soils. It will suc- 
ceed well in situations that would be entirely too low for red 
clover of either variety, for mammoth clover has much the same 
adaption as medium red clover. It is because of this adaption 
for humus soils that alsike clover is so well adapted for being 
grown with timothy, as well as because the two mature at the 




Cutting a heavy stand of timothy 

same time. But alsike clover will also grow well on soils with 
much less clay in them, although the yields from these will not 
equal the yields from humus soils. 

Timothy, like alsike clover, has highest adaption for humus 
soils, providing these are possessed of a considerable clay content 
and more particularly when they are underlaid with clay. Tim- 
othy will also grow well on sandy and clay loams, particularly 
the. latter, when an ample supply of moisture is present. 
But neither timothy nor alsike clover is well adapted to light 
lands low in fertility, and especially in regions where the rain- 
fall is light. 

Red top grows naturally in low lands, that is, it grows at its 
best in these, even when composed of peaty muck. In such 
marshes as have grown wire grass before they were drained, red 
top will usually possess the soils when the waters have been 



130 FUR BKTTEn i'HOl^S 

removed. But red top will also grow well on uplands reasonably 
moist, as shown by its behavior in New Eng-land when grown in 
conjunction with timothy, and in several of the states of the 
south, in which it is a factor of considerable importance in 
growing hay. 

Orchard grass will grow in a fairly wide range of soil. It has 
been mostly grown on certain of the loamy clays of New England, 
the stifCer soils of Indiana, the reddish clays of Tennessee and 
other states of the south, and in the sandy loam soil of Idaho 
and the adjoining states. Orchard grass calls for soils naturally 
moist, but not wet. 

Russian brome grass will grow in soils that would be too dry 
for timothy or orchard grass, but it does not grow nearly as well 
relatively on dry as on moist soils. It has high adaption for the 
soils of western and especially northwestern prairies, and in many 
localities it gives yields considerably ahead of those obtained 




The mo'Mrin^ machine in operation 

from timothy, and produces hay of equal feeding value, ton for 
ton, but not nearly so well adapted for selling in the open 
market. 

Western rye grass grows well on average prairie soils. It will 
grow better on sandy soils under dry conditions than almost any 
other kind of grass. It will flourish under conditions that would 
be too dry even for Russian brome, but of course it will give 
better yields where the soils are not so open and the land is more 
moist. The hay Is more woody than that of timothy and brgme 
grass. 

Tall oat grass is adapted to a considerable variety of soils, 
ranging from light sandy loams to clays of considerable density, 
but it finds most congenial conditions in loam soils. This grass 
has higher adaption to the central and far western states, and 
to areas south rather than north from these. 

Meadow fescue would seem to have nearly the same adaption 



F(fR BETTER CROPS 131 

as tall oat grass, but it is slower in taking a firm hold upon the 
soil and is correspondingly more enduring. It has been grown 
with much satisfaction for hay and for seed in Nebraska and 
Idaho. Peas and vetches require a moist but not a wet soil. It 
should also be more or less clayey in texture. The conditions 
suitable for medium red clover are also usually suitable, at least 
in a fair degree, for growing Canada field peas and common 
vetches. The cow pea and sand vetch will grow well under con- 
ditions less favorable to growth, as where the soil is sandy and 
relatively low in fertility. 

The soils adapted to growing grains for hay are virtually the 
same as those for growing them for the grain, but with the dif- 
ference that when grown for hay, grain production is not so im- 
portant relatively as when grain is the principal object sought, 
and straw or rather hay production; that is, the production of 




Svreep rake in operation 

stem and leaves is relatively more important. Because of this, 
these crops may be sown on lower soils and richer in vegetable 
matter than would be suitable for growing them at their best 
for grain production. 

Sorghum and kafflr corn may be successfully grown for hay 
on any kind of soil that will produce Indian corn in good form; 
that is, they may be successfully grown on any good sandy or clay 
loam soil where the climate is suitable. In almost every state in 
the Union the climate is suitable for growing some variety of 
sorglium into hay, but kaffir corn requires conditions somewhat 
warmer. The central Mississippi states have highest adaptation 
to growing such hay. 

Sowing Grasses and Grains for Hay — No matter what the 
grass or grain may be that is sown, it should always be the aim 
to sow on soil clean, mellow on and near the surface, moist, and 



132 FOR BETTER CROPS 



firm. These conditions may usually be attained by the proper 
preparation of the land previously. They are most readily 
secured when crops for hay are sown after those that have been 
cultivated the previous season, as for instance crops of corn, 
sorghum grown for syrup, Icafflr corn grown for grain, or pota- 
toes, or field roots. The cultivation given to tliose crops where 
such cultivation has been ample furnishes all the requisite con- 
ditions named above. Usually the preparation that should 
follow such crops consists of disking and harrowing rather than 
plowing and harrowing, but of course to this there are some 
exceptions. 

The best time for sowing many of the grasses is the early 
autumn, but they also may be sown in the early spring. When 
thus sown they are not so well able to endure dry weather the 
summer following. In all northern areas they may be sown in 
the spring, and the same is true of alfalfa. But in all southern 
areas these may be sown in the autumn. 

Alfalfa, as a rule, is best sown in the early autumn, south of 
parallel 40 degrees. When sown northward in the spring, it 
should not be sown so early as the clovers. As these are more 
hardy than alfalfa, the aim should be to sow them very early. 

In moist climates, grasses and clovers may be sown any time 
from early spring to early autumn. The aim should be not to 
sow such grains as early sorghum and kafflr corn, until the 
arrival of settled, warm weather, and the same is true of cow 
peas and millet. 

Millet in several varieties is frequently grown for hay. It 
yields abundantly on prairie and slough soils, because of their 
richness in vegetable matter, and since it will mature a crop in 
60 to 80 days from the time of sowing, it is often sown to provide 
hay when there is likely to be a shortage. But the hay though 
palatable and nutritious, for certain reasons should be fed in 
connection with other fodder. 

All of the hay plants except alfalfa should be sown broadcast 
or on the broadcast plan. It is usually better to sow alfalfa 
with the grain drill. They may be sown by hand or by machinery. 
Both the grasses and clover may be sown by hand-machines, 
strapped to the body and turned with a crank, by a distributor 
wheeled over the ground like a barrow, or by an attachment to 
the grain drill. Usually when mixtures of grass seed are sown 
they are mixed and sown together. But this way may not 
always be possible, as when large or small seeds are sown to- 
gether. They do not feed out evenly in such instances, hence it 
may be necessary to sow them separately. Timothy, all the 
clover seeds, and alfalfa grow well together. All grains or grain 
mixtures may be best sown with the grain drill. The same is 
true of sorghum, kafflr corn, and even millet, though all these 
may also be broadcast. 



FOR BETTER CROPS 



1.13 



Whether the grasses and clovers shovild be sown with or with- 
out a nurse crop will depend largely on climatic conditions. A 
nurse crop is of course a crop along with which these crops are 
sown; in many instances at the same time. Usually the grass 
and clover seed thus sown grow witliout doing any harm or any 
serious harm to the grain crop along with which they are sown 
until the latter is harvested. In some instances, however, the 
nurse crops overshade the ground to the extent of smothering 
the young grass or clover plants. In other instances, they 
smother them by lodging, and in yet otlier instances, they so 
wealcen them by drawing on the moisture in the soil, that the 
young plants perish after the nurse crop has been harvested. 
But usually the plan is good which sows them with a nurse crop. 

Alfalfa is of tener sown alone than tlie other grass and clover 
seeds, as under some conditions the plants are benefited by 




The hay rake 



being cut off two or three times with the mower during the first 
summer. 

The best nurse crop is probably barley, as it does not grow so 
tall as other grains and occupies the ground for a shorter period. 
Next to barley probably is speltz, for similar reasons. Then 
comes rye, which does not stool so much as other grains and is 
harvested earlier, thus letting in sunlight and ceasing at an early 
period to draw moisture from the soil. After rye is wheat, of 
both the winter and spring varieties. After wheat comes oats, 
lowest in adaptation because of the abundance of the stooling 
and the large amount of the leaf growth. But oats answer well 
for a nurse crop when they are grown thinly and cut for hay at 
the heading out stage. 

In some instances grass and clover crops are sown along with 
certain cereals which are pastured off rather than reaped. 
Where soils are over porous, and the climate is dry, the plan 



134 FOR BETTER CROPS 

works well, as in western areas which border on the semi-arid 
region. The treading of animals helps to make the land firm. 
The grazing removes shade too dense and leaves more moisture 
for the young plants. Such grazing may consist of any of the 
small cereals, or better, of two or more of them combined. 
Grass seeds may thus be sown with rape grazed down, or with 
the flax which is to be harvested. 

The depth for sowing grass and clover seed will depend much 
on soil and climatic conditions. On loam soils where the 
weather is moist much of the season, grass and clover seed will 
not of necessity require other covering than that given to them 
by allowing them to fall before the grain drill tubes, or rolling 
the ground when they are sown by hand. 

In other instances, as where the conditions are dry, they will be 
benefited by a stroke of the harrow in addition. This should 
always be given when they are sown in the spring along with 
winter rye or wheat, but under some conditions it may not be 
practicable to do this. Where soils are so light and spongy as to 
sink much beneath the tread, it may be wise sometimes to sow 
the grass seeds along with the nurse crop and to feed them along 
with it through the grain tubes. 

Sorghum and kaffir corn and also millet should be buried from 
one or two inches deep according to the soil and its condition at 
the time of sowing. 

The amounts of seed to sow will vary with soil and climatic 
conditions and the character of the hay sought. Thick sowing 
increases fineness, and thin sowing coarseness. In some instances 
the conditions are so dry than thin sowing is imperative to give 
each plant enough moisture. 

Should the clovers be sown alone, the amounts suited to average 
conditions would be: alfalfa, fifteen pounds per acre, and in the 
semi-arid country not more than eight pounds; medium red or 
mammoth clover, twelve pounds; and alsike clover five or six 
pounds. The average amount of timothy or red top to sow alone 
would be nine pounds. When timothy is sown with one or more 
clovers, the average amounts may be fixed at — timothy, six 
pounds, and clover or the clovers, six pounds in all. This last 
is the great standard hay crop. 

Should orchard grass, meadow fescue, tall oat grass, Russian 
brome, or western rye gi'ass be sown alone, the average amount 
of seed may be fixed at fifteen pounds an acre, and when two or 
three of them are sown together, proportionate amounts are 
sown. It is of course to be understood that in all instances these 
amounts relate to the growing of hay. For pasture it may be 
necessary to sow more seed. 

When timothy, red top, and alsike clover are sown to provide 
permanent meadow, the respective average amounts of seed may 
be set down at six, six, and three pounds of each, respectively. 



FOR BETTER CROPS 135 

When oats are sown for hay, the average amount of seed 
sown may be fixed at three bushels per acre in humid climates, 
but the quantities sliould be reduced with decrease in humidity. 
Wheat and barley, if grown without irrigation, should not be 
sown in greater quantity than say one and one-half to two 
bushels an acre. Cow peas are usually sown alone for liay at the 
rate of about one bushel per acre. Oats and peas are commonly 
sown at the rate of two and one-half bushels per acre, of which 
the proportion of peas will vary from one to one and a half 
bushels according to the soil adaption. When vetches are sown 
with other grain, the whole amount sown may be put at two 
and one-half bushels, of which one bushel or more is vetches. 
Except where the conditions are very dry, about eight bushels of 
seed is soVn per acre in order to make the hay fine, along with 




The hay loader in (he field 

about one bushel of millet seed. When grains are sown in 
mixtures and pastured, from two to three bushels are sown and 
the usual amount of grass and clover seeds. 

Harvesting Hay — It is exceedingly important that hay 
should be harvested at the proper season. If cut too early, tliere 
is a great loss of nutrients through loss in bulk and weiglit. If 
cut at too advanced a stage, there is serious loss in palatability, 
and also in digestible nutrients. The loss from undue delay in 
cutting is least from crops that produce only one cutting in the 
season, and greatest from those that produce more than one. 
Alfalfa and medium red clover are of the last named class, hence 
delay in cutting one crop is followed by serious slirinkage in the 
next crop in addition to the loss in feeding value in the crop 
thus cut at too advanced a period. 



136 FOR BETTER CROPS 

The best stage at which to cut alfalfa is when it is coming 
into bloom, wlien probably not more than one third of the 
blooms are opened. All the clovers are at their best for cutting 
when approaching or at full bloom. They will then have some 
heads, not many, beginning to tint brown. If cut sooner than 
the period named, alfalfa and red clover will be hard to cure; if 
cut later, there is likely to be a serious loss of leaves in the 
curing process, and leaves are the most nutritious and palatable 
portion of these foods. 

Timothy is at its best for cutting when in the later stage of 
bloom, that is, when the bloom still lingers upon say one third 
or one fourth of the top of the head. If cut when in full bloom, 
the adherent blossoms make the hay somewhat dusty when 
cured. Red top should be cut when in bloom, and the* same is 
true of Russian brome. The orchard grass, meadow fescue, tall 
oat grass, and western rye grass are better cut in the early stage 
of bloom than later, as they quickly become woody and so lose 
rapidly in palatability. This is particularly true of orchard 
grass and western rye grass. 

When hay crops are grown in combination; that is, when 
clovers and grasses are grown together, there]will be no difficulty 
in determining the time at which they should be cut when they 
mature at the same time. Happily this is true of mammoth 
and alsike clover, timothy, and red top. The best time for cut- 
ting these clovers will also be the best time for cutting timothy 
and red top which grows with them. But should medium red 
clover and timothy be grown together, the difference in the time 
of maturing is from two to three weeks, according to the season. 
The safe rule to follow is to cut at the best time for making 
clover hay, when the clover hay predominates, as it usually does 
the first year, and the best time for making timothy liay when 
timothy predominates — as it usually does the second year. 

The best stage at which to cut wheat, oats, and barley for 
hay, is when the grain is in the dough stage, or a little earlier 
with wheat and barley; as, when it has reached the milk stage. 
This will be indicated by yellow appearance in the stems for a 
few inches up from the ground. In the case of oats there will 
appear a slight tint of yellow on some of the heads when ready 
to harvest. 

When grains are sown in combination, as in the case of peas, 
vetches, and other grains, they should be cut when the bulk of 
the grain in the dominant crop is reaching the dough stage. 

Cow peas are ready to harvest for hay when a considerable 
sprinkling of the pods have begun to mature. Sorghum and 
kaffir corn should be allowed to reach maturity, or nearly so, as 
then they contain a much larger amount of food nutrients than 
at an earlier period. But they should in all instances be cut 
before frost. Millet is at its best for hay when the crop begins 



FOR BETTER CROPS 137 

to assume a yellow tint. Cut earlier it will be lacking in bulk; 
later, it will shed seeds freely. 

The implements for cutting hay are the mower and the 
binder. The implements for curing are the tedder and the horse- 
rake. The implements for storing are the wagon, hay loader, 
hay sweep or bull rake, the horse fork, the sling, and the stacker. 
The binder is only used for cutting grains for hay alone or 
mixed sorghum, kaffir corn, and millet. But in some instances 
these are also cut with the mower. When cut with the binder, 
the sheaves should be small and rather loosely bound to prevent 
them from moulding underneath the band in the airing process. 

Alfalfa and clover are cured by the same method in climates 
possessed of normal rainfall. When cut with the mower, the 







Baling hay 

hay lies on the ground until it is ready for being raked. This 
can be told by the ease with which it can be raked clean into 
windrows. When too green for being drawn together, bunches of 
the hay will fall back from the ends of the rake and it will draw 
heavily. The drying will be greatly facilitated by running the 
tedder over the field once or twice within a few hours of the 
cutting of the crop, or at least the same day when the hay is 
cut early in the day. The side delivery rake aids in the quick 
drying of the crop. If kept un raked until browned with the 
sun, the loss of leaves and of palatability is considerable, espe- 
cially in the case of alfalfa. 

As soon as raked, the hay should be put up in cocks, not wide, 
but reasonably high to complete the curing. In the cocks the 
hay sweats, and usually requires two days to complete the 



13 fi FOR BETTER CR0P8 

curing. It is then drawn and stored. In showery weather it is a 
great advantage to have the cocks covered with caps of rain- 
proof cloth, weighted at the corners. These are kept over from 
year to year. In such weather it may be necessary to open out 
the cocks a few hours before drawing the hay. 

This method of curing makes excellent hay, but is costly 
when hay is made on a larger scale. Because of this, clover is 
sometimes cured in the swath and windrow, and the same i^ the 
common method of curing alfalfa in dry areas. The plan 
answers well with clover well sprinkled with timothy when the 
weather is good. It can then be loaded with the hay loader. 
Cow peas are cured in much the same way as clover, but they are 
even more difficult to cure in good form. 

The grasses proper are more commonly cured in the swath 
and windrow than in the cock. They cure much more quickly 
than the clovers and alfalfa, and are much less injured by rain. 
When put up in cock they also turn or shed rain much better 
than the clovers. With the aid of the tedder it has been found 
possible to cut some of these in the morning and to store them 
the same day. Usually in good weather they may be cut one day 
and stored the next. 

When grains grown alone or in mixtures are cut with the 
mower, they are harvested in the same way, substantially as 
grasses, but may take somewhat longer to cure. The tedder 
should also be used on these with more caution lest the hay should 
be soiled with earth. In locations where they are not liable to 
be thrown down by the winds when cut with the binder they 
are most quickly cured in long shocks in which the isheaves are 
set up in pairs. 

When sorghum and kafflr corn are cut with. .the binder, after 
the sheaves have lain a day or two to dry the butts, they are 
stood up in round shocks, as these frequently stand for weeks 
and even months. These shocks are tied near the head with a 
band. When cut with the mower the crop may lie where it 
fell from two to four or Ave days. It is then raked and put 
up into large cocks and fed from these as desired. It does not 
readily mould in these, nor does it take injury easily from 
rain. Millet is cured in best form like clover, but is more com- 
monly cured like the grasses. 

Feeding Hay on the Farm — Of course, the question as to 
whether hay should be fed to live stock on the farm, or sold, must 
be determined by the conditions. These are such as touch the 
relative market value of hay and meat, the needs of the live 
stock on the farm, and its condition as to fertility. There are 
instances when it is justifiable and commendable to sell hay. 
The revenue of some farms is in great part or entirely from the 
sale of hay and this is not incompatible with the maintenance 



FOR BETTER CROPS 139 

of fertility. Everything depends upon the way in wliich the 
work is done. 

Wlietlier hay should be fed on the farm will depend almost 
entirely on the conditions. It may pay better to sell timothy 
than to feed it, because of the very high price which it brings 
in the market. Usually, however, it will pay better to feed hay 
from legumes on the farm. It does not bring so high a price 
relatively as timothy in the market, and yet it is more valuable 
than timothy for home feeding, except in the case of horses. 
Alfalfa in the range country is now frequently sold in the stack 
to ranchmen, who feed it in winter to the cattle and sheep which 
they run on the open range in summer. Such hay may usually 
be made to bring a much higher return to the grower who will 
judiciously turn the same into beef, mutton, wool, or pork on 
the ranch which produced it. But of course there are condi- 
tions under which it is legitimate to sell it. 

This much is clear, it never pays the farmer to let his stock 
go backward for the sake of selling hay at a high price. The 
policy is also mistaken which sells hay from a farm much in 
need of fertility, unless the price is such that it will justify 
selling the hay and buying the needed fertility in the form of 
commercial fertilizers. 

When hay is fed to live stock, the resultant product in meat, 
wool, milk, or labor, is only a part of the farmer's return. He 
has also the fertility obtained from feeding it. It is common to 
estimate that the fertility offsets the cost of labor from feeding 
the hay. Usually it is worth much more than such labor. 

It should be observed also that hay composed of legumes is 
usually much more valuable for feeding than non-leguminous 
hay, and the resultant fertility is also much greater. On the 
other hand, non-leguminous hay, as timothy and red top, is most 
in demand in the markets and brings the highest price. If, 
therefore, hay is to be sold from the farm, let it be hay that is 
non-leguminous in character. Such hay ships much better than 
the other, since it breaks less while being handled. For some 
kinds of hay there is virtually no market off the farm and 
probably it is well that it is so, as they can be utilized so well 
on the farm. Such are sorghum and kaffir corn hay. 

Usually it pays better to feed hay on the farm than to sell 
it. Where it does, the farmer should aim so to stock his farm 
that the animals on the same will consume it all. The great 
truth, that should ever be remembered, is tliat the relation 
between abundant stock-keeping and high values of land and 
profits from it, is of the closest possible kind. 



The Care and Protection of Farm 
Equipment 



By M. R. I). OwiNGS 

Advertising Manager, International Harvester Company of America 




Since the arrival of dollar wheat, seventj'- 
flve cent corn, and fifty cent oats, editors, 
college professors, and economists have 
taken a great deal of pleasure in speak- 
ing of the present day farmer as a " busi- 
ness man." They do not always define 
the term and on close scrutiny it looks 
as if the so-called "business" farmer 
is such sometimes largely because high 
prices of his products have made him 
prosperous, rather than because of his 
adoption of more business-like methods. 
It has been well demonstrated that a real business man is 
successful as a manufacturer in so far as lie is able to make 
mechanical labor take the place of less productive hand labor, 
and that a real business man as a farmer is similarly successful 
in so far as he can do the same thing. 

But here, very often, is where the resemblance ceases. 
The manufacturer invests so much money in labor-saving 
machinery, he allows so much for depreciation, and then pro- 
ceeds to see that his machine is well housed, well cared for, and 
kept going. He figures that it must pay so much Interest on 
the original investment plus a profit sufficiently large to equal, 
ultimately, the original investment. The longer the machine 
can fulfill the duties for which it was intended, the greater the 
money returns on the first outlay. 

When a farmer figures on the same basis in caring for his 
equipment, the economic term of "businessman" fits him, and 
generally you can call him an automobile owner as well. But 
when he invests his capital in expensive machines — and many 
of them — such as a modern farm nowadays necessitates, and 
then leaves his plow in the fence corner, his binder in tlie 
field, and his new wagon under the eaves of his cow shed, he 
falls short of exercising the right kind of business methods. 

Perhaps he makes enough to be able to do all this without 
noticing the drain upon his gross income. Some farmers figure 
that way, but it is not good commercial doctrine. 

140 



FOR BETTEB CROPS 141 



The money which a farmer puts into a binder, mower, or 
manure spreader, is capital invested just as much as the money 
another man puts Into a machine for makin^^ shoes or spinn ng 
cotton. It deserves an annual interest and an ultimate protit 
equally as much, and it is entitled to as thorough care and pro- 
tection. Furthermore, the laws governing continuity of service 
applv exactly the same to a cream separator and a wagon as to 
a planer or grinder. Of course, owing to the seasonal use of 
fann machines, there are lapses of time when certain machmes 
must remain idle. It is at this period that they should b 
best protected. Scientists say that the muscles of an arm w thei 
quicker from inactivity than from over-activity. The same 
thing is true of equipment, whether on the farm or m the fac- 
tory More plows have been worn away by the weather than 
were ever worn away by service. „„i/i tn fhP 

True as this is, very little attention has been paid to the 
science of machine care. Experimental stations will work for 
vears to show how to grow forty bushels of wheat where only 
Sy busheTs grew before. No one questions the usefulness of 
th woi^, but it takes the difference of a good many acres to 
^le up enough dollars to buy a new binder. And yet very lit- 
?1^ thne is spent in showing how to increase the lite of a binder 
f omTix to fifteen years. Perhaps they leave it to the common 
senTe of the farmer. If they do, all right, for common sense is 
reallv the thing that is needed. . 

College instfuction, ancestral advice, and original research in 
the car^of farm machines can all be simmered down to these 
three elementary necessities-good roofs, good paint and good 
fubrLantT These three determine whether the days of a 
mLhTne shall ^ long in the land or whether it shall soon return 
Tthe dust whence it came and another order go to the firm 

""^LeTetery farmer attend to this trio. How and when are 
questionlwhich each must answer for himself-not very pro- 
fmindauestions— but very important. 

Few people realize how simple and yet how essential such 
care r and for those who have overlooked this phase of agricul- 
tural l'ife%e give the experience of one successful Kentucky 
farmer which may contain helpful suggestions. 
'^Th s man rani big farm in that state and in SP.^ ^f me^ 
ficient help and long used soil made ^^^.^^ ^^^J^^^^,^'^^ 
believer in the above mentioned triumvirate, and he P^acticea 
what he believed. Back of his barn he had -ectf ^Jj^^^^^^^^^^ 
shed, not particularly showy nor expensive, but dry and una^ 
this shed he kept everything in the equipment line -from 

, ;Sru"as ,oXit t Ld 0? M. that .e wouM Just as 



I II I I III I. I . I .I '.I.'.I.I.I.I.I.M I '.'.l.'lll.l.l 'llllllll IIIIIIIIIMl 



iiiiinVni.' ' I I 1 1 ' '■' ■' '''■''' 

WTVr ^Jlllillllllllll| 




XcuXuv 



12 ' 5HlH<il.tS 



5=B 



1, 1,1,1,1,1, 1, i,i.i,i.cni 



llUllli" 



1.1,1.1" 



n=? 



H 



PROP MDINq 



FRONT ELlEVATION 



SLIDE DOOR 




5PACE FOR WAQON I I 

31 AoWER, Binder AND 

OiSC Harrow || OpeM Space 



DOUBLE DOORS 



Space for Bu<i<iY 

AND ^uTOMOBiuE 
MANURE 5PREA0ER 



T 



fAINT CUPBOARD 



|6liOL DOOI^ 

-*« — s--o_ 



Wobk5mop 



Work Bench- 



II I 



.^ 



n 



J. 



34-0' 



f l2'-6- 
< 



Qrovnd Floor Plan 

Plan for baildintf the machine shed 



142 




SiDL Elevation 




Section ON LiNE A~A 
Scale /g"= I Foot 



Sketch of Farm Machine Shed 
I M C Service Bureau 
International Harvester (p ofAmerica. 



143 



144 FOR BETTER CROPS 

soon leave a member of his family outside all winter as his 
mower or his drill. 

When he finished his plowing, he saw to it that his men 
brought the plow back to the shed. He then went over it thor- 
oughly with a coat of white lead, and it was left that way all 
winter. In the spring a little kerosene or turpentine was 
applied which loosened the paint so that with the first contact 
with the ground the share came out smooth and shiny like a 
mirror. 

"That plow," said the Kentuckian, "cost me $35.00. The 
paint cost 35 cents, and it made the plow last several years 
longer. 

"That is just an illustration," continued he, "of my proced- 
ure with every machine I own. Every two years I make it a 
point to go over the binders, mowers, and all the machines I 
have on the place with a good metal base paint. I take off the 
binder canvases, roll them up, and put them out of the way of 
the mice. I grease the sickles of the mowers and binders, wrap 
them up, and put them away in a dry place. Then when 1 have 
occasion to use these machines I put the sickles back in place, 
and before tlie first circuit of the field is completed they are as 
bright and shiny as when new. 

"Perhaps also the question of pride helps a little, because 
I always like to liave everything about the farm clean and 
bright. I generally use red paint because I like that color, and 
because red lead is better than white lead for outside work. I 
keep even the tongues and whiffletrees of my wagons as good as 
new. They are mostly made of locust in our country and, 
when properly painted, last a century. 

"This painting is not just a hobby; I have found that it pays. 
One time I sold a binder which I had used steadily for six 
years, for over two-thirds of what it cost me, and I didn't cheat 
the fellow, either. It was practically as good as new. 

"I am a paint advocate alright, and it seems to me that 
hired men may come and hired men may go, but my wagons, 
mowers, and drills go on forever. 

"I don't use up all of this paint because I feel more friendly 
toward the Sherwin-Williams people than I do toward the 
International Harvester Company of America. It is merely 
a matter of economy with me because paint is cheaper than 
new machines. 

"I am even more cranky on the lubricants. You know the 
parts of a binder, for instance, that are subject to wear are the 
chains, the gears, the boxes, and knotter. Painting won't 
help these, but plenty of oil will. When I first started farm- 
ing the most important bit of barn furniture was the oil can. 
Many a time since then, when I have seen my neighbors tied 
up in the middle of a work day with an overheated part, I have 



FOR BETTER CROPS 145 

'praised John from whom oil blessings flow,' as the University 
of Chicago boys say. I make it a rule, after each long trip, to 
grease my wagons, with the result that they are always ready 
and always ship-shape. I invent patent dust protectors of my 
own when none come with a machine, and where this is not 
possible I keep the exposed parts well cleaned. 

"Now all of this may seem rather unimportant to some 
farmers, or they may think it a great deal of trouble for noth- 
ing, but I never notice the trouble and, in the long run, I 
And that it is a good form of economy. I farmed for many 
years, at a time when prices were much lower than they are; 
now, and I made my farm pay. I do not claim that it was all 
due to my caring for my equipment, but the fact that I have 
made every cent of capital invested in machines return one 
hundred cents on the dollar, and then some, has had a great 
deal to do with my prosperity." 




Farm Machines and Progress 



By J. E. Buck 

Of the I H C Service Bureau 




The Staff of Life — The origin of wheat 
is unknown. It is at least as old as civil- 
ization, and was probably used as food by 
our primitive ancestors long before they 
emerged from the obscurity of the ages. 
For more than forty centuries the golden 
cereal has been the staff of life of civil- 
ized nations. In the advancement of 
human welfare, no cereal has been more 
instrumental than wheat. It has de- 
veloped the mechanical ingenuity and 
other intellectual faculties of man. 
Without wheat, farms would be abandoned, cities would crumble 
into ruin, and civilization would perish. 

From a bulletin compiled by Miss Helen W. Atwater for the 
Department of Agriculture, we learn that probably no food, un- 
less it is milk, is more generally used than bread, nor is there 
any food that constitutes a larger part of the diet of the average 
person. In the earliest historical records it is spoken of, and 
wild tribes which today inhabit South Africa know something 
of its use. Of course, the bread made by the Kafir to-day, or by 
the American Indian three hundred years ago, is very different 
from that with which we are familiar. The Kafir simply grinds 
his grain between two stones, makes a paste of this meal and 
water, and bakes it in the ashes of his camp fire. Israel, in 
Egypt, ate leavened bread; the ancient Greeks cultivated the 
yeast plant; in Pompeii an oven was found containing loaves of 
bread not unlike that of the present day; many European peas- 
ants still bake their weekly loaves in the village oven, and so 
on, to the mammoth bakeries and innumerable fancy breads of 
modern times. The reason for this importance of bread is very 
simple. Ever since tlie far-off days when the wild cereals were 
first found or cultivated, men have known that food prepared 

•Maps Nos. 1 and 2 show the value of agricultural machines in use in 1860 and 
in 1900, and maps Nos. 3 to 9 inclusive show the production of wheat in the United 
states by decades, beginning with 1840. 

The number of farms increased from 1,500,000 in 1850, to 6,000,000 in 1900, and the 
total area under culti\»tion increased during the same period from 293,000,000 
acres to 700,000,000 acres. The population of the United Stales has increased 
from 4,000,000 in 1790, to 90,000,000 in 1910. 
146 



Implemeuts and Farm Machines in 1860 
Each Dot Represents $30,000 Worth of Farm Machines 




From "Agricultural Production in the U. S. since 1840," in preparation by 
Henry O. Taylor and John Lee Coulter, with the financial assistance of the Carnegie 
Institution of Washington, D. C. All rights reserved. 

147 



148 FOR BETTER CROPS 

from them would support life and strength better than any 
other single food except milk. Althougli in this country the 
ease with which other foods can be obtained makes bread seem 
less important, there are many districts of Europe and Asia 
where it is still the "staff of life," and where when people pray 
for their daily bread, they mean it literally. 

Even in the United States bread plays a more important part 
than many realize. Statistical investigations which have been 
conducted by the government indicate that at present the 
annual per capita consumption of wheat in the United States 
is about 4i bushels, which represents not far from a barrel of 
flour, and there are reasons to suppose that this amount is 
increasing. 

The Early Struggle for Bread — During the first seventy 
years of our national life, our abundant resources failed to bring 
us any great increase in commerce or in the products of agricul- 
ture, trades, and industries. Notwithstanding the fact that the 
virgin soil was practically free to the settler, our production of 
wheat was insufficient to supply our people with bread, and the 
little that was imported was taken from the mouths of the 
poor. In the beginning of the century just past, but three per 
cent of the people of America lived in cities; the remainder 
lived on the farms and in small towns, and were dependent 
upon agriculture for food; there was little manufacturing — the 
people were dependent upon the mother-country for almost 
everything except the products of the soil. It, therefore, will 
seem a surprising statement when it is said that the people in 
the United States as late as 1845 did not raise enough wheat for 
their bread. In that year only 4i bushels per person were raised 
in the United States, while in the year 1800, 5J bushels per per- 
son were raised. We had during the first half of the century 
no factories such as employ thousands of hands to-day, and our 
cities were mere villages; therefore, it is no wonder that, with a 
population in the United States that had quadrupled since 1800, 
economists were alarmed at the failure of the food supply to 
keep pace with our rapid increase in population. It is not too 
much to say that the limit of food production with the sickle 
had been reached. 

Increase in Production of Food — About the middle of the 
last century there appears to have been a remarkable change in 
the food-producing power of the American people. From a low 
rank among nations, we have advanced to the highest position, 
with a producing power in agriculture and manufacture that 
almost equals that of all Europe. The source of this remarkable 
augmentation in our economic power is the result of invention — 
invention of agricultural machines. Our food supply increased 
decade by decade from 4.33 bushels of wheat per person in 1849, 



Implements and Farm Machines in 1900 
Eaoh Dot Represents S30,000 Worth of Farm Machines. 




From "Agricultural Production in the U S. since 1S40," in preparation^ by 
Henry C. Taylor and John Lee Coulter, with the financial assistance of the Carnegie 
Institution of Washington, D. C. All rights reserved. 

149 



150 FOR BETTER CROPS 

to e5.50 bushels in 1859, to 7.45 bushels in 1869, and to 10 bushels 
per person in 1891. In 1900 the per capita production of wheat 
decreased to seven bushels, but increased to nine bushels in 1909. 
Surprising as these statements are, they tell only half the 
story. From the 97 per cent of people on the farm in 1800, the 
number decreased to 80 per cent in 1859, and in 1900 to 33 per 
cent; the farms to-day, therefore, with less than one-third of the 
labor of the country, are producing sufficient not only to feed 
the people upon them, but also the 67 per cent that live in the 
cities, and export a considerable tonnage of food supplies. This 
showing is most marvelous, and has been made possible only by 
the genius of the American inventor, and the intelligence and 
energy of the American farmer. In all the history of the worlr] 
this achievement stands out beyond comparison. Much, O). 
course, has been due to the fertile soil of the great plains and 
valleys in which we live; much to the beneficent government 
that has given security to property and by its patent system has 
encouraged invention; much to the great railroads which have 
transported our products across the continent; but more is due 
to that body of inventors who recognized the necessity of 
improved methods on the farm, and who have provided that 
intelligent, progressive, and energetic body — the farmers of 
America — with machines which have enabled them to produce 
food-stuffs more cheaply than in any other land under the sun, 
thereby enabling them to sell their products in the markets of 
the world in competition with the penny-a-day laborers of India 
and China. 

Advancement in Agricnltural Methods — Wonderful as has 
been the progress made in other fields of effort during the last 
half century, the greatest forward strides have been made in 
agriculture — and this unprecedented development is due almost 
wholly to the numerous ingenious improvements made in agri- 
cultural implements and machines since the middle of the 
nineteenth century. We all know how important a part modern 
farm machines played in the industrial progress of the United 
States, but many are prone to accept it in too much of a matter- 
of-fact way — prone to forget the many years of unremitting 
toil required to build the foundation upon which we now rest 
so securely. 

Industrial Emancipation — The nineteenth century was as 
conspicuous for its industrial as for its political emancipation. 
Its history cannot be adequately written without taking note of 
its industrial progress, the abolishment of many of the more 
burdensome forms of toil, and the multiplication of the effective- 
ness of labor by supplying mechanical servants to replace human 
bondsmen. 

The struggle for deliverance from the tyranny of despotic 



FOR BETTER CROPS 151 

government, and the struggle for deliverance from the tyranny 
of despotic nature, are manifestations of the same craving after 
independence and individual sovereignty. There is a close kin- 
ship between the spirit which combats the arbitrary authority 
of man over man, and the spirit which seeks to establish the 
mastery of man over material agents. Free institutions do not 
quench man's intuitive ambition for power; they rather tend to 
substitute a different object for that ambition — power to serve 
the race instead of power to oppress it — power to invent mechan- 
ical agents instead of power to enthrall human agents— conquest 
over nature rather than conquest over mankind. 

When it began to be recognized that the authority which 
kings had for centuries exercised under the solemn awe of 
"divine right" rested rather upon the ignorance and subser- 
vience of their subjects, it was natural to inquire whether the 
fetters which nature seemed to have placed on primitive man 
might not yield to his intelligence, whether he might not domi- 
nate each and make its force responsive to his commands 
through the instruments which his will should summon into 
action and direct to his service. The complete realization of 
man's independence required that inanimate substitutes should 
supplant the liberated slave or serf in the irksome and menial 
tasks. So long as food and raiment and whatever contributes to 
sustenance, cultivation, and development, are procurable only 
through the unaided toil of the individual, each is limited to the 
most meager necessaries of life. Facilities for education and 
refinement, and the leisure which they require, were in centuries 
past possible only through the forced servitude of the many to 
the few. The inventor of machines prepared the way for politi- 
cal emancipation and deserves to share the honor which is freely 
accorded political liberators. He has multiplied artificial ser- 
vants until the average citizen to-day enjoys the service of a 
corps of mechanical slaves more efficient, more capable, and 
more subservient to the will of the master, than the gangs of 
human chattels which served the planters of the South fifty 
years ago, or the retinue of vassals that ministered to the barons 
of medieval Europe. 

We little realize the extent to which we are served by mechan- 
ical servants, the extent to which they relieve man from the 
more burdensome forms of physical toil, and promote him to a 
sphere where his mental faculties rather than his physical 
strength measure his earning capacity. If we were to banish 
the labor-saving machines which invention has provided, we 
would abandon civilization and reduce ourselves to a condition 
far more intolerable than that of the primitive savage, for we 
should have his limitations imposed upon the craving and aspira- 
tion to which he was a stranger. An invention, such as the 
reaping machine, which blazed the trail to higher achievement, 



152 



FOR BETTER CROPS 



is more important than many of tlie dynasties which have been 
conspicuous in history. Some inventors whose names the world 
seldom mentions have left a more potent and enduring impress 
upon subsequent history than tlie famous heroes of battle or 
statecraft. 

The Ever-Present Problem — The opinion that the wonder- 
ful wealth and commerce of the United States have sprung 
entirely from our natural resources has found a too common 
acceptance among our people. As we think of the increasing 
population and the higher cost of living, we realize that the 
ever-present problem of mankind has been to obtain food. The 
massacre of tribes and the marching of armies have had the 
obtaining of food as their inspiration. There has been no great 
progress in the world where food was not plenty. The impor- 
tance, therefore, of the food producer in the world is manifest, 
and the honor due to those who have done most to assist in 
securing a bounteous food supply is too often forgotten. 



Wheat Production in the United States, 
1866—1909 

The following figures show the production of wheat in the 
United States by years beginning with 1866 and ending with 
1909, as compiled by the Bureau of Statistics of the United 
States Department of Agriculture: 



Year 


Bushels 


Year 


Bushels 


Year 


Bushels 


1«66 


151,999,906 


1881 


388,280,090 


1896 


427,684,340 


1867 


212,441,400 


1882 


504,185,470 


1897 


530,149,168 


1868 


224,036,600 


1883 


421,086,1H0 


1898 


675,148.705 


1869 


260,146,900 


1884 


518,765,000 


1899 


547,303,846 


1870 


235,884,700 


1885 


357,112,000 


1900 


522,289,505 


1871 


2:»,72e,400 


1886 


457,218,000 


1901 


748,460,218 


1872 


249,997,100 


1887 


456,329,000 


1902 


670,063,008 


1873 


281,254,700 


1888 


416,868,000 


1903 


^37,881,835 


1874 


308,102,7(10 


1889 


490,560,000 


1904 


552,399,517 


1875 


292.136,000 


1890 


399,262,000 


1905 


692,979,489 


1876 


289„S56„500 


1891 


611,780.000 


1906 


7.15,260,970 


1877 


364,194,146 


1892 


515,949,000 


1907 


6.S4,087,O0O 


1878 


420,122,4t'0 


1893 


396,131,725 


1908 


664,602,000 


1879 


448,756,630 


1894 


460,267,416 


1909 


735,000,000 


1880 


498,549,868 


1895 


467,102,947 


1910 


691,769,000 



Wheat Production in 1840 

Each Dot Represents 50.000 Bushels. Of the total crop of 84.000.823. 

the four states Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, and Virginia 

Arc^v more than one-half 




From "Agricultural Production in the U. 8. since 1840," in preparation by 
Henry C. Taylor and John Lee Coulter, with the financial assistance of the Carnegie 
Institution of Washington, D. C. All rights reserved. 

153 



Wheat Production in 1850 

Note that the Wheat Belt Is moving M'est-ward into Michigan, 
Illinois, and Wisconsin 




From "Agricultural Productions in the U. 8. since 1840" in preparation by 
Henry C. Taylor and John Lee Coulter, ivith the financial assistance of the Carnegie 
Institution of Washington, I>. V. All rights reserved 

154 



Wheat Production in 1860 

The Ceii*ral States, Illinois, Indiana, and Wisconsin, were leading in 

Whea* Production. The total crop ot the country was 1 73, 105,000 

bushels, or more than twice as much as that of 1840 




From "Agricultural Production in the U. S. since ls4nr vi preparation by 
Henry I! Taylor and John Lee Coulter, with the financial a>>sistance oj the Carnegie 
Institution of Washington, D. C. All rights reserved. 



155 



Wheat Production in 1870 

Whereas the Eastern States are growing about the same amonnt that 

they £rew in 1840, the Central and the Western States have 

largely increased their wheat crops. The average yield 

per acre in 1870 was 13.6 bushels. 




From ^Agricultural Production in the U. 8. since. 1840." in preparation by 
iienru c. Taylor and John Lee Coulter, luith the financial assistance of the Oarneaie 
Institution of Washington, D. V. All rights reserved. 



156 



Wheat Production in 1880 

Wheat Growing is moving westward into Kansas and Nebraska 




? § 



/*>■ 



f ' /^^ ^ 



V 



From ^^Agricultural Production in the U. S. since 1840," m preparation by 
Henry O. Taylor and. John Lee Coulter, with the.ftna'icial assistance of the Carnegie 
Institution of Washington, D. C. All rights reserved. 

157 



Wheat Production in 1890 

Minnesota and the Dakoias are now the leadinti Wheat States: 
California also is ^ro^vin^ lar^e crops 



From ''A(/ricuUurol Production in the U. S. since 1S40." in preparation bij 
Henry C. Taylor and John Lee Coulter, with the financial assistance of the Carnegie 
Institution of Washington, D. C. All rights reserved. 

158 



Wheat Production in 1900 

Minnesota and North Dakota have become the leading Wheat Growing 
jM.nnesoia ^^^^^^ ^^^ states alone produced nearly *w»oe as much 



States, 



These two states aione prouutjeti .leai.^^ .„m^>, » 
as the total crop ^rown in this country in 1»4U 




Institution of Washington, I). C. All rights reserved. 

159 



3UN XI »9»» 




The I-H-C Line includes: 

CHAMPION • DEERING • MCCORMICK 

MILWAUKEE • OSBORNE • PLANO 

HARVESTING fc>H AYING M ACHINES O TOOLS 

TILLAG E IMPLE MENTS 
KEYSTONE SHEL LERS, HAY LOADERS. RAKES 

GASOLINE ENGINES. HAY PRESSES, 
FEED GRINDERS, AUTO BUGGIES.AUTO 
.. .. ^«..„„ »-'- ROADSTERS 

ELL CREAM 

LOVER LEAF 

: SPREADERS, 

ETTENDORF 

JUCKEYE 

?UCKS, 

n\lNE 



One copy del. to Cat. Div. 



\\\H 12 i9i« 



3UN 12 t9»« 



< ' •■■ ! 




The I-H-C Line includes: 

CHAMPION • DEERING • M'^CORMICK 

MILWAUKEE • OSBORNE • PLANO 

HARVESTING 6>H AYING M ACHINES 6* TOOLS 

TILLAG E IMPLE MENTS 
KEYSTONE SHEL LERS, HAY LOADERS. RAKES 

GASOLINE ENGINES. HAY PRESSES, 

FEED GRINDERS, AUTO BUGGIES.AUTO 

WAGONS, AUTOMOBILES AND ROADSTERS 

DAIRYMAID AND BLUEBELL CREAM 

HARVESTERS. CORN KING. CLOVERLEAF 

& KEMP 20- CENTURY MANURE SPREADERS, 

WEBER, COLUMBUS. NEW BETTENDORF 

& STEEL KING WAGONS, BUCKEYE 

6- STERLING FARM TRUCKS, 

THRESHERS. BINDER TWTNE 



kA. 



^.^y^ 

^^:^ 

"-': "-^^.r.--. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



002 586 327 6 ^ 



iTERN/VFIONAL 
COMPANY OF AM 



; [ 1^ c; O ^ M O ri M r C O > 



